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題名：Gotama Becomes the Buddha──Reconstruction of the Nikaaya Account of the
Path
頁329 Gotama Becomes the
Buddha──
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| Disappearance of five hindrances --- gladness---joy （piiti）---tranquility of the body---happiness （sukha）. |
The traditionally fixed version of the first jhaana runs as follows:
[27]Visuddhimagga （Ed. H. C. Warren, revised by Dhammananda Kausambi, Harvard University Press, 1950） p. 117; Chung-Hwa Budddhist Journal, No. 8 （1995）, p. 464.
[28]D. p. 37; Chung-Hwa Budddhist Journal, No. 8, p. 462 for English translation of the Brahmajaala-sutta passage, and notes 10. [29]D. p. 73. [30]Ibid.
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| Giving up of kaama and akusala-dhammas --- judgemental deliberations （i.e. vitakka and vicaara）--- piiti --- sukha. |
The absence of vitakka and vicaara in the Saama~n~naphala-sutta tradition does not mean any real difference. Vitakka and vicara are implied in this tradition. In the first jhaana the vitakka and vicaara stand for the judgemental deliberations with the help of which Gotama developed the wholesome mental state of renunciation. While describing the giving up of the five hindrances the Saama~n~naphala-sutta also speaks of the cultivation of the opposite wholesome mental states.
[30a] The vitakka and vicaara implied in this account of the sutta are connected with the cultivation of these good mental states.Seen in the light of the
Saama~n~naphala-sutta the first jhaana tradition would appear as follows:
| Disappearance of kaama etc. --- vitakka and vicaara --- gladness （pamojja） ---joy （piiti） --- traquility of the body --- happiness （sukha）. |
The originators of the jhaana formulas as well as Gotama knew that the tranquility of body generates happiness, because the third jhaana formula speaks of experiencing happiness due to body.
We can now represent the third jhaana formula in the same way as follows:
| Separation from piiti --- physical tranquility --- happiness （sukha） |
The difference between the first jhaana and the third jhaana is now quite obvious. In the first jhaana formula one experiences piiti and sukha after one has become separated from kaama and akusala-dhammas （i.e. painful feelings）. Seen in the light of the Saama~n~naphala-sutta this means that piiti makes the body tranquil, and the physical tranquility, in its turn, generates happiness.
We have to note that sukha is due to physical tranquility, and not directly due to piiti. It means that happiness would be always caused by physical tranquility
[30a]D. I., p. 71.
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irrespective of its cause.
The third jhaana formula, unlike the first jhaana formula, clearly implies that the physical tranquility which causes happiness is due to the separation from piiti, and not due to piiti.
Both these jhaana formulas have been recorded in numereous suttas of the Nikaayas. It is obvious that neither the Buddha nor the disciples of the Buddha consider these two traditions contradictrory. Actually these two traditions can be shown to belong to two different stages of spiritual development and thus to refer to the different degrees of physical tranquility and happiness. In case of the first jhaana Gotama, due to the separation from kaama and painful mental factors （akusala-dhammas） felt relieved and piiti arose. Piiti also agitates the body and mind, but compared to dukkha （pain） it agitates in a much lesser degree. So Gotama felt a certain degree of physical calmness which generates the feeling of happiness. This is the happiness which is spoken of in the Saama~n~naphala-sutta. But after attaining the spiritually advanced state of the second jhaana──which is free from the stronger agitative elements of kaama and dukkha──Gotama must have been acutely aware of the strong physical sensation and the resultant mental agitation （cetaso ubbilaavitattam） caused by piiti. So Gotama generated aversion to piiti through adverse critricism. As he did not take delight in piiti, his mind became free from its agitative influence. Consequently his body became appreciably calmer, and this resulted in greater happiness. This is the happiness mentioned in the third jhaana formula. It should be noted that whatever may be the difference in degree, the happiness in both the cases belong to the same category.
b） Characteristics of the Third jhaana──intentional and incidental
The only action Gotama took to leave behind the agitaive state of the second jhaana was to be averse to piiti. Thus only the surmounting of the element of piiti was intentional, but the development of the other aspects of this mental state was incidental. The characteristics of mindfulness and awareness as well as the development of the feeling of happiness were not intended. [31]Goatama was not
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even thinking that the mind would become calmer with the calming down of the agitative element. But the mind automatically becomes calmer, and consequently awareness , mindfulness, and even happiness increase automatically.
Sukha （happiness） had to be surmounted later. The term ‘upekkhakaa’ in the third jhaana should stand for indifference to sukha, and not to piiti. This is bcause Gotama had already become averse to piiti.
Fourth jhaana
Sukha （happiness）, an element in the third jhaanic state, was not intentionally created; it was not the product of any desire on the part of Gotama. But his mind was not averse to it and he became mindful of it. This point is made clear in the Brahmajaala-sutta which we will discuss later.
In the fourth jhaana formula we read that Gotama gave up the feeling of sukha. This led to the arising of a new mental state characterised by the feeling which was neither painful nor happy （adukkham-asukham）, and the purification of mindfulness due to indifference
[32] （upekkhaa-sati-paarisuddhi）. In the present context upekkhaa （indifference） can only mean indifference to ‘adukkham-asukham’, for this is the only agitative element that is present in this mental state which is called the fourth jhaana. In this jhaana he could abide for he was in a position to exercise upekkhaa towards the pleasant feeling characterising this mental state.The fourth jhaana formula also draws our attention to the mental elements which Gotama had given up before, viz. dukkha, domanassa and somanassa. We have seen from the Brahmajaala-sutta account that it is by giving up dukkha, domanassa, and somanassa etc., which constitutes the akusala-dhammas that
any idea about the mental state that emerges in consequence of the elimination. Even when he is rejecting the state of neither-perception-nor-not-perception through adverse criticism, his thoughts are entirely occupied with the adverse criticism, and he does not think of the next state of the sa~n~naa-vedayita-nirodha in any way, see also p. 360 of the present article.
[32]This translation of the expression ‘upekkhaa-sati-paarisuddhi’ is supported by Vibhanga （Rangoon, Burma, Buddhasaasana Samiti, 1961） p. 271.
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Gotama could attain the first jhaana. It is evident from the fourth jhaana formula that he must have also given up somanassa sometimes later. Now he only had to give up sukha to leave behind the disturbing mental state of the third jhaana.
a） Giving up of the feeling of sukha
The reason for the giving up of sukha and the method followed to give it up we can know from the Brahmajaala-sutta and the Dvedhaavitakka-sutta. According to the Brahmajaala-sutta sukha is given up because it is gross （olaarika）. Why does one have the perception of grossness in sukha? In other cases such vitakka, vicaara and piiti we have seen these are gross because of the mental agitation they cause. The sutta implies that sukha is considered gross because it is the ‘abhoga’ of mind.
[33] The term ‘aabhoga’ is derived from the verbal root ‘bhuj’ which means either ‘to bend’ or ‘to enjoy’. The term ‘aabhoga’ thus can mean enjoyment or bending （of the mind）.In the present context the term ‘aabhoga’ cannot mean ‘enjoyment’ for it would suggest that the mind is ‘delighting in’ or ‘clinging to’ an object. This would cause the meditator to fall from the third jhaana to the second jhaana.
[34]So ‘aabhoga’ should mean ‘bending the mind to an object, paying attention to an object’. Vasubandhu suports this view of ours. According to him ‘aabhogo’ of mind means paying attention （manaskaaras’ cetasa aabhogah.）.[35]Such mental activity shows that his mind was not free from agitation. The fact that he abided in this mental state shows that he neither clung to this feeling nor was yet averse to it. He was just being mindful, maintaining the attitude of indifference towards this feeling. The interpretation of ‘aabhoga’ shows why Gotama could abide in the third jhaana , and at the same time reveals why he would find ‘sukha’ to be gross afterwards. The ‘aabhoga’ indicates mental action which disturbs the mental peace. It is, therefore, gross. The Brahmajaala-sutta suggests that it is because of this grossness that Gotama gave up sukha.But this sutta is not explicit about the method Gotama followed to give up
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sukha. On the basis of the Dvedhaavitakka-sutta we can surmise that he adversely criticised sukha constantly for its grossness, and became averse to it. As he aspired for nibbana, we can reasonably suggested that he also criticised sukha on the ground that such an agitative element was not conducive to the realisation of nibbaana which was utter calmness.
b） Adukkham-asukham and Upekkhaa-sati-paarisuddhi
With the giving up of the feeling of sukha （sukhassa pahaanaa） the mind experiences a new mental state which is characterised by the feeling of adukkham-asukham （neither-painful-nor-happy）. This feeling is free from the characteristics that are specific to dukkha or sukha. But this feeling is still pleasant.
[36]Gotama abides in this mental state. How does he abides in this state? If he is averse to this feeling, he surmounts it and goes beyond the fourth jhaana. On the contrary if he clings to it, he reverts to the third jhaanic state of unworldly happiness （niraamisa.m sukham）. This is evident from the Pa~ncatayya-sutta.[37]Here we read that some recluse or brahmin enters upon and abides in the neither-painful-nor-happy feeling and thinks : ‘This is peaceful （santam）. This is perfect （pa.niitam）, that I enter upon and abide in the neither-painful-nor-happy feeling.’ When he thinks like this the feeling ceases in him. With the cessation of neither-painful-nor-happy feeling unworldly happiness arises in him, and with the cessation of unworldly happiness, neither-painful-nor-happy feeling arises in him.We may, therefore, conclude that neither being averse to this feeling in the fourth jhaana nor clinging to it can be abide in the fourth jhaana. So Gotama must have developed ‘upekkhaa’ to this feeling to be able to abide in the fourth jhaana.
Upekkhaa had been the deciding factor whenever Gotama abided in any of the four jhaanas. But it is recorded for the first time in the formula of the fourth jhaana, for by this time upekkha had become sufficiently developed to deserve explicit mention.
Upekkhaa occurs as a part of the expression ‘upekkhaa-sati-paarisuddhi’ which means purity of mindfulness due to indifference. Here ‘indifference’ cannot
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indicate indifference to sukha, for sukha had already ceased to arise in mind due to adverse criticism. Indifference must be exercised with reference to something that is still existing. So indifference in the present context must refer to the indifference to the feeling of ‘either-painful-nor-happy’. It is because of this indiffrence that Gotama could abide in the fourth jhaana.
This is supported by the Mah`asaccaka-sutta related his experience of the fourth jhaana as a bodhisattva in the following way.‘But such pleasant feelings that arose in me did not invade my mind and remain.’This sentence shows that the pleasant feeling was not eliminated yet.[37a]
The first part of the sentence （i.e. upto my mind） shows that Gotama was indifferent to the feeling of adukkha.m-asukham, and consequently he was not distracted by any feeling and his mindfulness became perfect.
The fourth group of the Parama-di.t.thadhamma-nibbaanavaadins also attained this mental state. But as they mistook this state to be nibbaana they developed clinging to it, and they must have been swinging back and forth between the two mental states of third jhaana and the fourth jhaana.
The Mahaasaccaka-sutta immediately after stating that the pleasant feeling remained in the mind of Gotama gives a descriptioq of a new mental state which was devoid of any feeling.
Observations on the system of the four jhaanas
We may draw attention to certain salient features common to the four jhaanas
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in order to understand clearly the working of this system of meditation.
1） Gotama was not practising this system of meditation for the sake of enjoying pleasant feelings. He adversely criticised the feelings and thereby surmounted them. Even the feeling of adukkham-asukham he gave up later.
2） His efforts were also not directed towards the development of concentration （samaadhi） and mindfulness （sati）. While practising the four jhaanas Gotama did not take a single step which directly develops these two mental faculties. They got incidentally developed with the gradual and incidental development of mental calmness.
3） Gotama while practising the four jhaanas was only mindful of the elimination of agitative mental elements, and never entertained any thought about the immediate development of calmness and concentration nor about the ultimate goal, the nibbaana. This is suggested by the jhaana formulas which state that Gotama exerted himself only to be free from the influences of those elements that agitate the mind, viz. vitakka, vicaara, piiti, sukha and adukkham-asukham.
This interpretation may be objected on the ground that the second jhaana explicitly speaks of internal clarity （ajjhatta.m sampasaadanam） and concentration while the third and fourth jhaanas speak of being mindful （sato） and having the purity of mindfulness （sati-paarisuddhi） respectively. Can it be concluded that Gotama while practising the four jhaanas was deliberately trying to develop calmness, mindfulness and concentration?
This view cannot be accepted if we consider the following points :
a）In the jhaana formulas mental traits like calmness, concentration etc. which incidentally came to be developed and retained, is mentioned only once when it for the first time becomes developed enough to be included in a jhaana formula. For example, calmness and concentration are mentioned only in the second jhaana , or the characteristic of the ‘purification of mindfulness due to upekkhaa’ finds mention only in the fourth jhaana formula. Only in case of a feeling it continues to be mentioned so long it is not surmounted, e.g. sukha has been mentioned in the first three jhaana formulas. This indirectly shows his pre-occupation with the mental elements that agitates.
b）The Parama-di.t.thadhamma-nibbaanavaadins, the originators of the four
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jhaana formulas were not interested in truly knowing an object. As it is clear from our analysis of these formulas, they merely wanted to attain and abide in a peaceful mental state. Mindfulness and concentration, on the other hand, are sine qua non of truly objective knowledge.
c）Gotama and other practitioners of this system of meditation must have learnt that this meditative system was developed and practised for the sake of perfect mental calmness. But the meditative technique was not to have any desire for it, not to think of the ultimate goal at all while practising meditation. The mind should be fully occupied with the task in hand, viz. the elimination of the agitative elements.
This point is clearly brought into relief with reference to the cessation of perception and feeling in the Cuulavedalla-sutta. [38]Here the bhikkhunii Dhammadinna states that when ‘a bhikkhu is attaining the cessation of perception and feeling, it does not occur to him: ‘I shall attain the cessation of perception and feeling’, or ‘I am attaining the cessation of perception and feeling’, or ‘I have attained the cessation of perception and feeling’; but rather his mind has previously been developed in such a way that it leads him to that state. The first two types of thoughts are expressive of subjective expectations that agitate the mind, and thus prevent the meditator from attaining a calmer mental state. The third type of thought cannot occur for no thought is possible during the attainment of the cessation of perception and feeling. From the initial part of the jhaana formulas we know that the first two types of thoughts Dhammadinnaa spoke of were absent from the mind of Gotama. During the transition from one mental state to another Gotama's thoughts were only about the criticism of the lower mental state; he was not thinking at all about the mental state he would attain. The rest of the formula, however, shows that Gotama was fully aware of the new mental states he attained. But even these expressions are not joyous declaration of the fulfilment of his ego-centric desires; these are objective description of the mental state he was abiding in.
Only the rejection of the agitative elements is intended. But the other aspects of the mental states were not due to any planning or direction. They are
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not there to fulfil any subjective expectation. To this extent these mental elements are objective.
4） Each jhaanic state in its origin, continuation and transformation is connected with three different attitudes of mind. From the jhaana formulas we know that its origin is due to the aversion to an agitative element in the preceding mental state. Its continuation is dependent on the attitude of indifference （upekkhaa） to the strongest agitative element which characterises the present mental state. Its transformation is again due to aversion to the agitative element in the present mental state.
The mental state can also get transformed if the meditator develops clinging to it, for in that case he reverts to the lower, preceding mental state. [39]The reason for such transformations of the mental states is change in the degree of mental agitation. When one has aversion to an agitative mental element, that element disappears, the adverse criticism naturally comes to an end, and the mind being free from the disturbing influences grows calmer. Consequently a higher mental state is attained. But if the meditator takes delight in and clings to the mental state, his mental agitation increases. He, therefore, reverts to the preceding, lower mental state. If one maintains the attitude of indifference, the degree of mental agitation remains the same, and he continues to remain in the same mental state.
Mental states after the fourth jhaana
a） Nature of the special mental state
The suttas are not explicit about the fact that Gotama attained a new mental state by going beyond the fourth jhaana. The available traditions also do not state how he achieved this. There are, however, certain informations recorded in the Majjhime Nikaaya which throw light on both these problems. In the Mahaasacckak-sutta the statement that the pleasant feeling connected with the fourth jhaana remained in the mind of Gotama is immediately followed by the discription of a new mental state which is devoid of any feelind. This proves that
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he exercised adverse criticism against the feeling of adukkham-asukham, became free from its influence, and the feeling disappeared from his mind. Gotama went beyond the fourth jhaana.
The suttas
[40]describe a mental state of Gotama immediately after the description of the fourth jhaana. This is a new mental state which does not mention the feeling of adukkham-asukham referred to in the fourth jhaana, or any other feeling. This is a special mental state with which Gotama realised three knowledges （vijjaa）,[41]one of which is bodhi.What does the non-mention of a feeling from this special mental state signify? We know that a feeling or any other agitative mental element finds mention in a jhaana formula only so long it is not surmounted. For example, dukkha has been excluded from the description of the first jhaana, for it is by surmounting the feeling of dukkha that one attains the first jhaana. Again for the same reason piiti is included in the first two jhaana formulas but excluded from the third. Or sukha is included in the first three jhaanas but not mentioned in the fourth jhaana formula. So the non-mention of the feeling of adukkham-asukham in the special mental state shows that Gotama had already surmounted this feeling before he attained the special mental state.
There are only three types of feelings. Before the attainment of the fourth jhaana two of these feelings, viz. dukkha and sukha, had already ceased to arise in mind. Gotama went beyond the fourth jhaana by adversely criticising the remaining feeling of adukkham-asukham. Consequently the new mental state he attained was without any feeling.
We have, however, to note that the special mental state, unlike the preceding mental states, does not make any explict mention of the fact that an agitative element has been given up. The reason for this silence is that this feeling, unlike the other two feelings, is not permanently suppressed. When the first jhaana is reached, the feeling of dukkha has been permanently suppressed, and its place has been taken by the feeling of sukha. Unless one reverts to the mental state of an ordinary person the feeling of dukkha will not rise again. Similarly when the
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fourth jhaana is reached, the feeling of sukha has been replaced by the feeling of adukkham-asukham. In case of the feeling of adukkham-asukham, there is no other feeling to replace it when this feeling is suppressed and a higher mental state is attained. So the same feeling of adukkha.m-asukham which is also called sukhaa vedanaa, surfaces again and again whenever a new, higher mental state is attained. Therefore we find in the Mahaasaccaka-sutta that all the three higher mental states each of which was characterised by a vijjaa and was attained one after another by Gotama with the help of the special mental state, were accompanied by a pleasant mental feeling. The explicit statement in the sutta that ‘the pleasant feeling that arose’ in Gotama shows that the feeling was not present in the special mental state, but arose anew after each of the three vijjas was attained. This also indicates that before another vijja was realised Gotama got rid of this feeling by adverse criticism. We can conclude that from the special mental state the feeling of adukkham-asukham temporarily disppeared.
The Pa~ncatayya-sutta
[42]states that some recluse or brahmin went beyond the fourth jhaana. But he mistook this new mental state as nibbaana, took delight in it and consequently lost it. Thus it is evident that after Gotama had attained the special mental state he neither clung to it nor adversely criticised it and thereby could abide in this state.The mental state that is described after the fourth jhaana reflects all these developments and something significantly more. We have called this mental state ‘the special mental state’ for with its help Gotama attained the three vijjas （knowledges）.
The special mental state which Gotama achieved has been described as concentrated （samaahita）, purified （parisuddha）, clean （pariyodaata）, without any blemish and defilement （ana.mgana, vigatupakkilesa）, workable （kammaniiya）, steady （.thita）, and immovable （aanejjapatta）. It is a mental state which has become pliant （mudubhuta） and attained immovability （aanejjapatta）.
The whole description is mainly about the mental concentration and
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purification of mindfulness. Mudubhuuta may mean flxibility due to upekkhaa. As already noted there is no mention of any feeling in this description.
We have seen in our discussion of the mental element of ‘sukha’ of the third jhaana that the mere presence of a feeling forces the mind to pay attention to it and thus causes mental agitation. In the same way the presence of the feeling of ‘adukkham-asukham （also called sukhaa vedanaa） in the fourth jhaana is also a source of mental disturbance. It follws that as there is no feeling in the special mental state, the mind would be calmer, and consequently the mental concentration and mindfulness would be more developed in this mental state than in the fourth jhaana. The term ‘parisuddha’ included in the description of this mental state should refer to a mindfulness that is more developed than the mindfulness indicated in the phrase ‘upekkhaa-sati-paarisuddhi’ of the fourth jhaana.
The mindfulness of the special mental state should be identified with the mindfulness referred to in the phrase ‘anuttaram-upekkhaa-sati-paarisuddhim’ of the Sekha-sutta,[43] for in both the cases this developed mindfulness comes into existence after the attainment of the fourth jhaana and before the acquisition of the three vijjaas. The other terms such as ‘pariyodaata’, ‘anam•gana’, and ‘Vigat-upakkilesa’ indicate the purity of mind in a more general way. The terms like ‘samaahita’, ‘.thita’, and ‘aanejjapatta’ indicate developed mental concentration. Though the mind is perfectly concentrated on and mindful of an object, it is not attached to it due to the development of upekkhaa.
The special mental state like the other jhanic states owed its existence only to the intentional elimination of an agitative element in the preceding mental state, i.e. the feeling of adukkham-asukham. But the special state that emerged was not planned and directed. It is not observer created; nor can it be regarded as a product of Gotama's imagination. It is mostly an unintentional effect of his intentional act of elimination of the neither-painful-nor-happy feeling. To this extent the special mental state is objective.
b） Suitability of the special mental state as a means of true knowledge
The special mental state not only came into existence objectively but also was
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absolutely objective in its functioning. It is because of this reason that Gotama was able to realise the three types of objective knowledges （vijjaa） with the help of this mental state.
Let us try to understand how the mental state could function objectively. The awareness of an ‘I’ as an agent was still there, for Gotama had not yet achieved ‘bodhi’. But Gotama had now surmounted all the feelings. He had given up the feeling of ‘dukkha’ and thereby attained the first jhaana. He gave up the feeling of ‘sukha’, and attained the fourth jhaana. Again by giving up the feeling of adukkham-asukham he entered and abided in the special mental state which was, thus, conspicuous by the absence of all feelings. As a result the arwareness of ‘I’ did not give rise to the different attitudes of liking, disliking, and indifference. The mind of Gotama was not tainted by any subjective reaction and was capable of making truly objective observation. In fact this special mental state by its very nature was incapable of distorting the reality of what it observed. It was only capable of seeing an object as it really is （yathaabhuutam）. This mental state is unique for it is ignorant of the unreality of ‘I’, and yet does not distort the objectivity of observation. Thus this special mental state is ideally suitable for gaining truly objective knowledges, including ‘bodhi’. In this respect the observation made by the special mental state is superior to the result of any scientific observation in which the observer is inevitably and inextricably mixed up.
It should be noted that the absence of all feelings and the resultant non-clinging to any object are not due to knowledge, but due to the constant cultivation of particular types of thoughts. The clinging was suppressed but not uprooted.
Realisation of the three knowledges （vijjaa）
The special mental state, though not based on knowledge, was ideally suitable for gaining truly objective knowledges. This mental state was such that Gotama by merely being mindful could gain the three different knowledges including ‘bodhi’, the absolutely objective knowledge of the Conditioned.
The first knowledge was about the knowledge due to the recollection of his own past lives in all details （pubbenivaasa-anussati~n~naana）. This knowledge is not
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knowing what was not known before. It is more a case of recollection, anussati, regaining the knowledge of something which was forgotten.
The other two knowledges deal with knowing what was not known to him before. The second knowledge was about the ever recurring phenomenon of death and rebirth of beings （cutupapaata~naana） following the consequences of their actions. This knowledge he acquired directly through divine vision.
The first two vijjaas brought Gotama face to face with the endless recurrence of the cycle of birth, death and rebirth that is the ineluctable destiny of the unenlightened beings. This spurred him on to discover the wisdom that would lead him out of this cycle.
The liberating knowledge which he gained through direct vision found its first expression with reference to aasava （defilement） which is responsible for our bondage in this sa.msaara. He had the truly objective knowledge （yathaabhuutam） of the exisatence, origin, destruction and the path leading to the destruction of aasava （defilement）. The knowledge regarding aasava involves the law of pacca-samuppaada. This is bodhir or enlightenment that destroyed all attractions for an individual existence, and uprooted the illusory ‘I’ and and all clinging.
After the attainment of this third vijjaa Gotama speaks of his final liberation thus:
[44]
| When I knew and saw thus, my mind was liberated from the taints of sensual desire （kaamaasava）, from the taint of being （bhavaasava） and from the taint of ignorance （avijjaasava）. When it was liberated there came the knowledge: ‘It is liberated’. I directly knew: ‘Birth is destroyed, the holy life has been lived, what had to be done has been done, there is no more coming to any state of being.’ This was the third knowledge attained by me in the third watch of the night. |
This declaration of Gotama is a testimony to the fact that final liberation was attained. There is no more birth for Gotama. This shows that even if one has
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only attained bodhi, but not the nibbaana in this world, he is still assured of nibbaana after the dissolution of the body.
Implications of Bodhi
It is only after attaining ‘Bodhi’ that Gotama could really know that the nibbaana, the Unconditioned, actually exists and it can be attained. With him nibbaana was no longer a matter of faith. But the knowledge he had of the existence of the nibbaana and its characteristics was the result of logical deductions. Bodhi not only revealed the true nature of the Conditioned but also showed that it is possible to go beyond the Conditioned and to attain nibbaana, the Unconditioned. Being Unconditioned it must be permanent. As it is permanent it must be changeless. Being changeless it is compeletely devoid of all actions and consequently utterly calm. And what is calm should be free from all clinging, for clinging causes agitation. All these logical deductions are valid being based on absolutely objective knowledge. Accordingly the suttas describe the nibbaana as the cessation of all formative actions （sabba-sa.mkhaara-samatha） and as a supreme state of excellent peace （anuttaram santivarapadam）.
[45]It is because of such a characterisation of nibbaana when some samana or brahmin attained a comparatively calm mental state he mistook it for nibbaana and declared:“I am calm, I have attained nibbaana, I am without any attachment.” （saanto’ham asmi, nibbuto’ ham asmi, anupaadaano’ham asmi）. Such a monk or brahmin was wrong, for as the Buddha pointed out, this statement made by a person without wisdom showed that he took delight this state clung to it and therefore his mind was not perfectly calm. Gotama was not objecting to the characterisation of nibbaana as calm and non-clinging. He was only pointing out that such a samana or brahmin had not yet realised these characteristics of nibbaana.Realisation of Bodhi is imperative
Gotama also attained this mental state but remained unaffected by it. But instead of trying to attain still calmer mental state and realise nibbaana, he strove for and attained bodhi. The spiritual goal of Gotama also was nibbaana. So this
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striving of Gotama for the realisation of bodhi may appear to be enigmatic, especially because this step did not conform to the general spiritual practice of the samanas who were not interested in gaining knowledge; they were all for attaining an utterly peaceful mental state. Moreover the mind of one who has only realised bodhi is not utterly calm. It is not yet bereft of all formative actions （Sa.mkhaara）. Thus it appears that Gotama revolutionised the samana spiritual world by going for and realising bodhi. What is the reason for such an action?
In the Samyutta Nikaaya （Vol.2, p.124f） Buddha tells Susiimaparibbaajaka that nibbaana is to be realised after bodhi. In the Rathaviniita-sutta
[46]the same message has been given more clearly and elaborately. This sutta mentions a series of spiritual achievements in an ascending order at the apex of which stands nibbaana, immediately preceded by the purification of knowledge and vision, i.e. bodhi. The sutta states that it is for the sake of nibbaana, and not for the other spiritual achievements, that the bhikkhus follows the teachings of the Tathaagata. But nibbaana cannot be experienced without first attaining bodhi and other spiritual states. Thus bodhi had to be attained, and only then nibbaana in this world could be experienced.Realisation of Nibbaana
A person who has realised ‘bodhi’ can automatically attain nibbaana after the dissolution of the body. So why was nibbaana declared to be the ultimate spiritual goal to be attained in this world? What does the realisation of nibbaana in this world precisely mean? Or how can one attain nibbaana?
All these problems can be solved if we pay a closer attention to the nature of nibbaana. We have seen that all the characteristics attributed to nibbaana are logically deduced. The main characteristics of the nibbaana viz. the unconditionedness, and permanency can never be experienced by mind for the mind is conditioned and impermanent. So these two characteristics never came to be associated with the nibbaana in this world. The others characteristics such as absence of all activities, utter calmness and complete non-clinging follow from the two main characteristics. All these logical deductions are valid for they are
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based on absolutely objective truths, and they characterise the nibbaana in this world. So the chief signs of the attainment of nibbaana in this world are the cessation of all formative actions and the utter mental peacefulness. This mental state, as we shall see, is not the bodhi mind, but the cessation of perception and feeling which also stands for the cessation of all formative actions （sabba-sa.mkhaara- samatha）. We can even say that as nibbaana marks the cessation of all sa.mkhaaras, it is perfectly calm.
[47]In bodhi all the sa.mkhaaras are not destroyed. Before the attainment of ‘Bodhi’ the verbal sa.mkhaaras （i.e. vicaara and vitakka） and the bodily sa.mkhaaras （i.e. the in-breathing and the out-breathing） are temporarily suppressed in the second jhaana and the fourth jhaana respectively. But in the state of sa.mj~naa-vedayita-nirodha （cessation of perception and feeling） all the sa.mkhaaras including the mental sa.mkhaaras of perception and feeling, remain suppressed at the same time.[48]It is obvious that to attain such a state another object of meditation was necessary. Gotama now followed the system of formless meditations which deal with different types of perception, Gotama gradually went beyond the perceptions of form, infinite space, nothingness, infinite consciousness, and the state of neither-perception-nor-non-perception. Then he made an end of perception and attained the state of the cessation of perception and feeling. He thus became the Tathaagata, the Buddha. His spiritual journey at last came to an end.
But why was it necessary to realise bodhi first in order to realise nibbaana in this world. The bodhi destroys mental element of clinging by destroying the illusory ‘I’. The false sense of personality （sakkyaaya） extends upto the state of neither-perception-nor-non-perception.
[49]It is not possible to go beyond this state without realising the truth of ‘anattaa’. But as Gotama had already realised ‘bodhi’, he could go beyond this state, and attain the cessation of perception and feeling.There are several suttas which confirms that the state of sa~n~naa-vedayita-
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nirodha is attained after the state of the neither-perception-nor-non-perception. The Ariyapariyesana-sutta also confirms this tradition; moreover this sutta alsao states that Gotama experienced the nibbaana in this world after the attainment of the state of neither-perception-nor-non-perception.
[50]It is obvious that the cessation of perception and feeling is the same as the nibbaana in this world. This is also proved by the description of nibbaana as the cessation of all formations and the state of utter peacefulness, for the state of sa.mj~naa-vedayita-nirodha also marks the end of all formative actions, and is, therefore, utterly calm.[51]With the attainment of nibbaana in this world i.e. the sa.mj~naa-vedayita-nirodha Gotama's spiritual journey came to an end. He declared himself to be the Tathaagata, the Sammaasambuddha.[52]
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喬答摩成佛──
《尼柯耶》（Nikaaya）成佛之道的重構
穆克紀
中華佛學研究所研究員
提要
在佛陀及其以前的時代，最終的修行目標在於得證現法涅槃（nibbaana）。喬答摩（Gotama）亦出家以達成這個目標。
我們嘗試利用散布於《尼柯耶》（Ｎikaaya）中的敘述，來重構喬答摩整個修行歷程的輪廓。文中僅探討那些可接受為合乎史實並對最終目標之達成有積極說明的資料。
在修行歷程的初期階段，喬答摩運用息止惡念並同時使善念持續生起的方法來調伏與長養心念。正是這種心靈──非天神的啟請──促使他出於慈悲而為受苦的世人說法。
涅槃被認為是完全的寂靜，達到心的寂靜的一個方法就是修習四禪（the four jhaanas）。喬答摩也證得了四禪，而且超越四禪·甚而他維持不被第四禪生起之後的心靈狀態所干擾·接著，他捨離苦、樂、不苦不樂受，而大大地增進寂靜、正念及心的專一。他不再樂著於任何對象，因而，他證得了一種完全專一、正念分明的特別心靈狀態，及因除掉這些感受而顯得特別。
值得注意的，是這種心靈狀態的出現不是刻意追求的。喬答摩的努力全都導向煩撓因素的去除，而非生發一種新的心靈狀態。再者，既然這種心靈狀態並不樂著任何對象，在作用時也就免除了一切主體的影響力·因此，這是一種特殊的心靈狀態，並未捨去虛幻的「我」，不具有看透諸如執著等之本質的智慧，卻能夠作絕對客觀的觀察。此種心靈狀態所作的觀察優於任何科學的觀察，後者總是無法免除觀察者的影響。
藉由這種心靈狀態，喬答摩證得了「菩提」（bodhi），那是有關漏（aasava, aa`srava）盡和其他二明的智慧。這個智慧彰顯出一個人可以超越有為（the conditioned），使他得以推究無為（the unconditioned）──涅槃──的存在。此
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智慧破除了虛幻的「我」，因此永久根除了執著。一個證得「菩提」的人在肉體離散之後進入涅槃。
但是「菩提」的證得不意謂著喬答摩修行歷程的終止，菩提之心（bodhi-mind）並非全然地寂靜，他仍未經驗到涅槃的最為寂靜的狀態。再者，「菩提」的證得和當時只重心靈寂靜的沙門（`srama.na）傳統並不一致·那麼，喬答摩為何證得「菩提」？沒有「菩提」就不能破除「我」的虛幻性，所以總是存在著心靈退墮的可能性。其次，沒有「菩提」就不可能體證現法涅槃。所以喬答摩先證得「菩提」，然後進一步求取涅槃的經驗。
涅槃是無為與常恆的，由於屬於心靈的一切都是有為的和無常的，如此則不可能經驗到涅槃，但是邏輯上歸之於涅槃的完全寂靜的屬性，在所有的「行」（sa.mskaara）止息時是可被經驗到的。喬答摩通過想受滅（sa~n~naa-vedayita-nirodha）──同於現法涅槃的經驗──的證得而達致此種完全寂靜的狀態。他成了如來（Tathaagata）。
關鍵詞：1.特別的心所 2.菩提 3.涅槃