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I. The Noble Truth of Suffering

D.22

What, now, is the Noble Truth of Suffering?

Birth is suffering; Decay is suffering; Death is suffering; Sorrow, Lamentation, Pain, Grief, and Despair are suffering; not to get what one desires, is suffering; in short: the Five Groups of Existence are suffering.

What, now, is Birth? The birth of beings belonging to this or that order of beings, their being born, their conception and springing into existence, the manifestation of the Groups of Existence, the arising of sense activity: this is called birth.

And what is Decay? The decay of beings belonging to this or that order of beings; their becoming aged, frail, grey, and wrinkled; the failing of their vital force, the wearing out of the senses: this is called decay.

And what is Death? The departing and vanishing of beings out of this or that order of beings. their destruction, disappearance, death, the completion of their life-period, dissolution of the Groups of Existence, the discarding of the body: this is called death.

And what is Sorrow? The sorrow arising through this or that loss or misfortune which one encounters, the worrying oneself, the state of being alarmed, inward sorrow, inward woe: this is called sorrow.

And what is Lamentation? Whatsoever, through this or that loss or misfortune which befalls one, is wail and lament, wailing and lamenting, the state of woe and lamentation: this is called lamentation.

And what is Pain? The bodily pain and unpleasantness, the painful and unpleasant feeling produced by bodily impression: this is called pain.

And what is Grief? The mental pain and unpleasantness, the painful and unpleasant feeling produced by mental impression: this is called grief.

And what is Despair? Distress and despair arising through this or that loss or misfortune which one encounters: distressfulness, and desperation: this is called despair.

And what is the 'Suffering of not getting what one desires'? To beings subject to birth there comes the desire; 'O, that we were not subject to birth! O, that no new birth was before us!' Subject to decay, disease, death, sorrow, lamentation, pain, grief, and despair, the desire comes to them: 'O, that we were not subject to these things! O, that these things were not before us!' But this cannot be got by mere desiring; and not to get what one desires, is suffering.

The Five Khandhas, or Groups of Existence

And what, in brief, are the Five Groups of Existence? They are corporeality, feeling, perception, (mental) formations, and consciousness.

M. 109

All corporeal phenomena, whether past, present or future, one's own or external, gross or subtle, lofty or low, far or near, all belong to the Group of Corporeality; all feelings belong to the Group of Feeling; all perceptions belong to the Group of Perception; all mental formations belong to the Group of Formations; all consciousness belongs to the Group of Consciousness.

These Groups are a fivefold classification in which the Buddha has summed up all the physical and mental phenomena of existence, and in particular, those which appear to the ignorant man as his ego or personality. Hence birth, decay, death, etc. are also included in these five Groups which actually comprise the whole world.

The Group of Corporeality

(ruupa-khandha)

M. 28

What, now, is the 'Group of Corporeality?' It is the four primary elements, and corporeality derived from them.

The Four Elements

And what are the four Primary Elements? They are the Solid Element, the Fluid Element, the Heating Element, the Vibrating (Windy) Element.

The four Elements (dhaatu or mahaa-bhuuta), popularly called Earth, Water, Fire and Wind, are to be understood as the elementary qualities of matter. They are named in Pali, pa.thavi-dhaatu, aapo-dhaatu, tejo-dhaatu, vaayo-dhaatu, and may be rendered as Inertia, Cohesion, Radiation, and Vibration. All four are present in every material object, though in varying degrees of strength. If, e.g., the Earth Element predominates, the material object is called 'solid', etc.

The 'Corporeality derived from the four primary elements' (upaadaaya ruupa or upaadaa ruupa) consists, according to the Abhidhamma, of the following twenty-four material phenomena and qualities: eye, ear, nose, tongue, body, visible form, sound, odour, taste, masculinity, femininity, vitality, physical basis of mind (hadaya-vatthu; see B. Dict.), gesture, speech, space (cavities of ear, nose, etc.), decay, change, and nutriment.

Bodily impressions (pho.t .thabba, the tactile) are not especially mentioned among these twenty-four, as they are identical with the Solid, the Heating and the Vibrating Elements which are cognizable through the sensations of pressure, cold, heat, pain. etc.

1. What, now, is the 'Solid Element' (pathavii-dhaatu)? The solid element may be one's own, or it may be external. And what is one's own solid element? Whatever in one's own person or body there exists of karmically acquired hardness, firmness, such as the hairs of head and body, nails, teeth, skin, flesh, sinews, bones, marrow, kidneys, heart, liver, diaphragm, spleen, lungs, stomach, bowels, mesentery, excrement and so on-this is called one's own solid element. Now, whether it be one's own solid element, or whether it be the external solid element, they are both merely the solid element.

And one should. understand, according to reality and true wisdom, 'This does not belong to me; this am I not; this is not my Ego'.

2. What, now, is the 'Fluid Element' (aapo-dhaatu)? The fluid element may be one's own, or it may be external. And what is one's own fluid element? Whatever in one's own person or body there exists of karmically acquired liquidity or fluidity, such as bile, phlegm, pus, blood, sweat, fat, tears, skin-grease, saliva, nasal mucus, oil of the joints, urine, and so on-this is called one's own fluid element. Now, whether it be one's own fluid element, or whether it be the external fluid element, they are both merely the fluid element.

And one should understand, according to reality and true wisdom, 'This does not belong to me; this am I not; this is not my Ego'.

3. What, now, is the 'Heating Element' (tejo-dhaatu)? The heating element may be one's own, or it may be external. And what is one's own heating element? Whatever in one's own person or body there exists of karmically acquired heat or hotness, such as that whereby one is heated, consumed, scorched, whereby that which has been eaten, drunk, chewed, or tasted, is fully digested, and so on-this is called one's own heating element. Now, whether it be one's own heating element, or whether it be the external heating element, they are both merely the heating element.

And one should understand, according to reality and true wisdom, 'This does not belong to me; this am I not; this is not my Ego'.

4. What, now, is the 'Vibrating (Windy) Element' (vaayo-dhaatu)? The vibrating element may be one's own, or it may be external. And what is one's own vibrating element? What in one's own person or body there exists of karmically acquired wind or windiness, such as the upward-going and downward-going winds, the winds of stomach and intestines, the wind permeating all the limbs, in-breathing and out-breathing, and so on-this is called one's own vibrating element. Now, whether it be one's own vibrating element or whether it be the external vibrating element, they are both merely the vibrating element.

And one should understand, according to reality and true wisdom, 'This does not belong to me; this am I not; this is not my Ego.'

Just as one calls 'hut' the circumscribed space which comes to be by means of wood and rushes, reeds, and clay, even so we call 'body' the circumscribed space that comes to be by means of bones and sinews, flesh and skin.

The Group of Feeling

(vedanaa-khandha)

S.XXXVI, 1

There are three kinds of Feeling: pleasant, unpleasant, and neither pleasant nor unpleasant (indifferent).

The Group of Perception

(sa~n~naa-khandha)

S. XXII, 56

What, now, is Perception? There are six classes of perception: perception of forms, sounds, odors, tastes, bodily impressions, and of mental objects.

The Group Of Mental Formations

(sankhaara-khandha)

What, now, are Mental Formations? There are six classes of volitions (cetanaa): will directed to forms (ruupa-cetanaa), to sounds, odors, tastes, bodily impressions, and to mental objects.

The 'group of Mental Formations' (sankhaara-khandha) is a collective term for numerous functions or aspects of mental activity which, in addition to feeling and perception, are present in a single moment of consciousness. In the Abhidhamma, fifty Mental Formations are distinguished, seven of which are constant factors of mind. The number and composition of the rest varies according to the character of the respective class of consciousness (see Table in B. Dict). In the Discourse on Right Understanding (M.9) three main representatives of the Group of Mental Formations are mentioned: volition (cetanaa), sense impression (phassa), and attention (manasikaara). Of these again, it is volition which, being a principal 'formative' factor, is particularly characteristic of the Group of Formations, and therefore serves to exemplify it in the passage given above.

For other applications of the term sankhaara see B. Diet.

The Group Of Consciousness

(vi~n~naa.na-khandha)

S. XXII. 56

What, now, is consciousness? There are six classes of consciousness: consciousness of forms, sounds, odors, tastes, bodily impressions, and of mental objects (lit.: eye-conscious-ness, ear-consciousness, etc.).

Dependent Origination Of Consciousness

M. 28

Now, though one's eye be intact, yet if the external forms do not fall within the field of vision, and no corresponding conjunction (of eye and forms) takes place, in that case there occurs no formation of the corresponding aspect of consciousness. Or, though one's eye be intact, and the external forms fall within the field of vision, yet if no corresponding conjunction takes place; in that case also there occurs no formation of the corresponding aspect of consciousness. If, however, one's eye is intact, and the external forms fall within the field of vision, and the corresponding conjunction takes place, in that case there arises the corresponding aspect of consciousness.

M. 38

Hence I say: the arising of consciousness is dependent upon conditions; and without these conditions, no consciousness arises. And upon whatsoever conditions the arising of consciousness is dependent, after these it is called.

Consciousness, whose arising depends on the eye and forms, is called 'eye-consciousness' (cakkhu-vi~n~naa.na).

Consciousness, whose arising depends on the ear and sounds, is called 'ear-consciousness' (sota-vi~n~naa.na).

Consciousness, whose arising depends on the olfactory organ and odors, is called 'nose-consciousness' (ghaana-vi~n~naa.na).

Consciousness, whose arising depends on the tongue and taste, is called 'tongue-consciousness' (jivhaa-vi~n~naa.na).

Consciousness, whose arising depends on the body and bodily contacts, is called 'body-consciousness' (kaaya-vi~n~naa.na).

Consciousness, whose arising depends on the mind and mind objects, is called 'mind-consciousness' (mano-vi~n~naa.na).

M. 28

Whatsoever there is of 'corporeality' (ruupa) on that occasion, this belongs to the Group of Corporeality. Whatsoever there is of 'feeling' (vedanaa), this belongs to the Group of Feeling. Whatsoever there is of 'perception' (sa~n~naa), this belongs to the Group of Perception. Whatsoever there are of 'mental formations' (sankhaara), these belong to the Group of Mental Formations. Whatsoever there is of consciousness (vi~n~naa.na), this belongs to the Group of Consciousness.

Dependency Of Consciousness On The Four Other Khandhas

S. XXII. 53

And it is impossible that any one can explain the passing out of one existence, and the entering into a new existence, or the growth, increase and development of consciousness, independently of corporeality, feeling, perception, and mental formations.

The Three Characteristics Of Existence

(ti-lakkha.na)

A. III. 134

All formations are 'transient' (anicca); all formations are 'subject to suffering' (dukkha); all things are 'without a self' (anattaa).

S. XXII, 59

Corporeality is transient, feeling is transient, perception is transient, mental formations are transient, consciousness is transient.

And that which is transient, is subject to suffering; and of that which is transient and subject to suffering and change, one cannot rightly say: 'This belongs to me; this am I; this is my Self'.

Therefore, whatever there be of corporeality, of feeling, perception, mental formations, or consciousness, whether past, present or future, one's own or external, gross or subtle, lofty or low, far or near, one should understand according to reality and true wisdom: 'This does not belong to me; this am I not; this is not my Self'.

The Anatta Doctrine

Individual existence, as well as the whole world, are in reality nothing but a process of ever-changing phenomena which are all comprised in the five Groups of Existence. This process has gone on from time immemorial, before one's birth, and also after one's death it will continue for endless periods of time, as long, and as far, as there are conditions for it. As stated in the preceding texts, the five Groups of Existence-either taken separately or combined-in no way constitute a real Ego-entity or subsisting personality, and equally no self, soul or substance can be found outside of these Groups as their 'owner'. In other words, the five Groups of Existence are 'not-self' (anattaa), nor do they belong to a Self (anattaniya). In view of the impermanence and conditionality of all existence, the belief in any form of Self must be regarded as an illusion.

Just as what we designate by the name of 'chariot' has no existence apart from axle, wheels, shaft, body and so forth: or as the word 'house' is merely a convenient designation for various materials put together after a certain fashion so as to enclose a portion of space, and there is no separate house-entity in existence: in exactly the same way, that which we call a 'being' or an 'individual' or a 'person', or by the name 'I', is nothing but a changing combination of physical and psychical phenomena, and has no real existence in itself.

This is, in brief, the Anattaa Doctrine of the Buddha, the teaching that all existence is void (su~n~na) of a permanent self or substance. It is the fundamental Buddhist doctrine not found in any other religious teaching or philosophical system. To grasp it fully, not only in an abstract and intellectual way, but by constant reference to actual experience, is an indispensable condition for the true understanding of the Buddha-Dhamma and for the realization of its goal. The Anatiiaa-Doctrine is the necessary outcome of the thorough analysis of actuality, undertaken, e.g. in the Khandha Doctrine of which only a bare indication can be given by means of the texts included here.

For a detailed survey of the Khandhas see B. Dict.

S. XXII. 95

Suppose a man who was not blind beheld the many bubbles on the Ganges as they drove along, and he watched them and carefully examined them; then after he had carefully examined them they would appear to him empty, unreal and unsubstantial. In exactly the same way does the monk behold all the corporeal phenomena, feelings, perceptions, mental formations, and states of consciousness-whether they be of the past, or the present, or the future, far or near. And he watches them, and examines them carefully; and, after carefully examining them, they appear to him empty, void and without a Self.

S. XXII. 29

Whoso delights in corporeality, or feeling, or perception, or mental formations, or consciousness, he delights in suffering; and whoso delights in suffering, will not be freed from suffering. Thus I say.

Dhp. 146-48

How can you find delight and mirth

Where there is burning without end?

In deepest darkness you are wrapped!

Why do you not seek for the light?

I.ook at this puppet here, well rigged,

A heap of many sores, piled up,

Diseased, and full of greediness,

Unstable, and impermanent!

Devoured by old age is this frame,

A prey to sickness, weak and frail;

To pieces breaks this putrid body,

All life must truly end in death.

The Three Warnings

A. III. 35

Did you never see in the world a man, or a woman, eighty, ninety, or a hundred years old, frail, crooked as a gable-roof, bent down, resting on crutches, with tottering steps, infirm, youth long since fled, with broken teeth, grey and scanty hair or none, wrinkled, with blotched limbs? And did the thought never come to you that you also are subject to decay, that you also cannot escape it?

Did you never see in the world a man, or a woman who, being sick, afflicted, and grievously ill, wallowing in his own filth, was lifted up by some and put to bed by others? And did the thought never come to you that you also are subject to disease, that you also cannot escape it?

Did you never see in the world the corpse of a man, or a woman, one or two or three days after death, swollen up, blue-black in color, and full of corruption? And did the thought never come to you that you also are subject to death, that you also cannot escape it?

Samsara

S. XV. 3

Inconceivable is the beginning of this Sa.msaara; not to be discovered is any first beginning of beings, who obstructed by ignorance, and ensnared by craving, are hurrying and hastening through this round of rebirths.

Sa.msaara-the wheel of existence, lit, the 'Perpetual Wandering'-is the name given in the Pali scriptures to the sea of life ever restlessly heaving up and down, the symbol of this continuous process of ever again and again being born, growing old, suffering, and dying. More precisely put: Sa.msaara is the unbroken sequence of the fivefold Khandha-combinations, which, constantly changing from moment to moment, follow continually one upon the other through inconceivable periods of time. Of this Sa.msaara a single life time constitutes only a tiny fraction. Hence, to be able to comprehend the first Noble Truth, one must let one's gaze rest upon the Sa.msaara, upon this frightful sequence of rebirths. and not merely upon one single life time, which, of course, may sometimes be not very painful.

The term 'suffering' (dukkha), in the first Noble Truth refers therefore, not merely to painful bodily and mental sensations due to unpleasant impressions, but it comprises in addition everything productive of suffering or liable to it. The Truth of Suffering teaches that, owing to the universal law of impermanence, even high and sublime states of happiness are subject to change and destruction, and that all states of existence are therefore unsatisfactory, without exception carrying in themselves the seeds of suffering.

Which do you think is more: the flood of tears, which weeping and wailing you have shed upon this long way-hurrying and hastening through this round of rebirths, united with the undesired, separated from the desired-this, or the waters of the four oceans?

Long have you suffered the death of father and mother, of sons, daughters, brothers, and sisters. And whilst you were thus suffering, you have indeed shed more tears upon this long way than there is water in the four oceans.

S. XV. 13

Which do you think is more: the streams of blood that, through your being beheaded, have flowed upon this long way, these, or the waters of the four oceans?

Long have you been caught as robbers, or highway men or adulterers; and, through your being beheaded, verily more blood has flowed upon this long way than there is water in the four oceans.

But how is this possible?

Inconceivable is the beginning of this Sa.msaara; not to be discovered is any first beginning of beings, who, obstructed by ignorance and ensnared by craving, are hurrying and hastening through this round of rebirths.

S. XV. 1

And thus have you long undergone suffering, undergone torment, undergone misfortune, and filled the graveyards full; truly, long enough to be dissatisfied with all the forms of existence, long enough to turn away and free yourselves from them all.

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