But -- fortunately, perhaps, for hierarchical experience -- this move is not called for.[41] For it must be insisted that in fact the Suttas never actually do take the step of identifying conditions in dependent arising contexts as being (or including) intention, any more than they do with the triad beginning with in-and-out breaths, or with any of the many other specific items which throughout the texts are identified in various contexts as being conditions. They never go beyond offering the three open categories of body, speech, and mind. In other words, all aspects of experience, bodily, verbal, and mental, arise with condition, not independently. Since this is a move they consistently avoid, for us to make it in defiance of their lead (however much our own view may invite us to do so) may well be a case of missing the point by overshooting the mark (see chapter 4).

And what, then, might be the point of leaving the term "conditions" unspecified in dependent arising contexts? If we are to understand the term in a way which is relevant to our concerns we shall reject any explanations which lie outside the range of experience. Certainly, when we looked, earlier, through the Suttas at the various things which within their contexts were identified as being conditions we found nothing which lay outside experience.[42] Indeed, to the extent that they are found at all, all conditions clearly depend upon consciousness (without which, of course, there would be no experience for these conditions to be found within). This leads us to two observations:

1) The relationship of conditions to consciousness is reminiscent of the relationship between feeling and dukkha. Neither feeling nor dukkha could be regarded as either "a whole" or as "part of a whole," and yet we were able to differentiate between them in terms of precedence. Here too, although any particular conditions are certainly dependent upon consciousness (as well as upon contact -- M. 109: iii,17) for its involvement within experience, yet consciousness depends upon the fact that there is such a thing as "conditions." Therefore the category "conditions" takes precedence over the category "consciousness."

2) The relationship of conditions to consciousness is reminiscent of the relationship between name-and-matter and consciousness. Indeed, the parallel is so close that the mistake is sometimes made of equating name-and-matter with the first four aggregates. However "conditions," if it includes anything, certainly includes more than just intention, contact, and attention, none of which could be regarded as body or mind condition. It is by itself a broader and more-inclusive category than "name." Therefore "name" may be regarded as a particularization of "conditions." As a particularization name-and-matter is indeed as dependent upon consciousness as is consciousness upon name-and-matter. However, the category "conditions" is not at all a particularization. Therefore it is never suggested that "By means of consciousness, conditions." Conditions as a category takes precedence.

This brings us back to what was said earlier, namely, that in order to reveal what is common to all behavior what is needed is not particularization but universalization. The "specific" when contrasted with the "universal" has quite different implications than when contrasted with the "general." Even "name-and-matter together with consciousness" can be described as "the most general possible of specifications" when we refer to specific name-and-matter and specific consciousness. But for investigating the root-source of dukkha we need to attend not to the specific but to the universal. And "name-and-matter together with consciousness" is not "the most general possible of universalizations:" conditions is.

Is, not are, because to say "conditions are" is to pluralize and to specify: this, that, and the other. To say "conditions is" is to singularize, to universalize, to regard any particular condition as being no more (in essence) that "an example of conditionality." The vital point is not that consciousness arises dependent on this condition or on that condition, but that consciousness has conditions. Therefore "conditions" is not yet-more-general: it is yet-more-universal.

In the same way our friend needed to see any particular circle -- regardless of whether it was red or blue, large or small -- as being in essence no more than "an example of roundness." This could not be a mere matter of abstraction. ("Yes, 'All circles are round' may be fine in practice, but how does it work in theory?") To abstract is no more productive than to attend to specifics while ignoring their general nature. ("Yes, this circle is hard; it is red; it is round. But will the next one be soft? Will it be blue? Will it be square?") We require universalization. ("This circle could serve as a template for roundness, and so could any other circle.") What is necessary is to see any specific as an instance of the universal. It is for this reason that we need to regard any specific condition as being no more, in essence, than "an example of conditionality." ("This is an example of a relationship, of non-independence, and so too are all other experienced phenomena.") Only thus can we see its universal necessity. Therefore the category "conditions" is left unspecified.

As we saw, the other factors of dependent arising exemplifications, consciousness to ageing-and-death, can be regarded in two ways: either as specifics or as universals. As specifics ("By means of this particular A, that particular B") their use is on the psychological level. As universals ("There are such things as B if and only if there are such things as A") they look towards the root. Therefore they transcend all psychology. For psychology at its best can only explore the manifestations or symptoms of the root problem.[43] But with "By means of conditions, consciousness," specification becomes pointless, for all we will achieve is to specify consciousness (eye-consciousness, etc. -- see the M. 38 extract in chapter 10). This is endless and therefore non-productive. Therefore the category "conditions" is left unspecified.

Other parts of the exemplification are designed to lead from specifics to the general. This part leads from specifics to the universal. It is universal because "By means of conditions..." describes every level of experience and every pair of related items within any dependent arising exemplification. "Craving for craving" is a true recursive statement, but it is limited to the specific case. It describes only the structure of craving. But "by means of conditions..." describes the structure of conditions. That is, it describes the structure of all things that are dependently arisen. It is therefore the universal view of all recursiveness. And being universal, rather than specific, the category "conditions" must be left unspecified.

"By means of conditions...," then, is no mere tautology: it is as concise a statement of the essence of the Buddha's Teaching as one could possibly hope for. Indeed, to say "by means of conditions..." is equivalent to saying "dependent arising." And, of course, to say "dependent arising" is to say "the Buddha's Teaching" (M. 28: i,191). This is because dependent arising as a structural principle is self-descriptive. That is to say, it too arises with condition, not independently: it is dependently arisen. And what is the condition by means of which this principle arises? This: the condition of there being specific exemplifications of the principle.

Here we distinguish between the principle itself ("when there is this, that is..."), and its exemplifications (primarily, "by means of ignorance, conditions; by means of conditions..." and so on). The exemplification is not the principle: it is one of the many possible ways in which the principle becomes specified within (or as) experience. The principle states the general case. Just as in a world in which circles could not exist (though actually we cannot conceive of such a world) the principle that "all circles are round" would be meaningless, so too, if dependent arising totally lacked exemplifications then as a principle it would be wholly meaningless. That is, it would be no principle at all.

The principle of dependent arising, then, is not something "out there," beyond experience, yet casting its influence upon us like some baneful and invisible sun. Such a model harks back to the search for an absolute, an unmoved mover of things, a godhead. But dependent arising is a refutation of just such a model. As such, it cannot fail to be subject to its own principle. Although from the point of view of its exemplifications the principle certainly appears as extra-temporal, yet it is also certainly not absolutely extra-temporal.

Efforts are sometimes made to equate the Buddha's Teaching with eternalist religions by asserting that the fundamental insight to which this Teaching points is an eternal principle. As such it is said to be, therefore, of the same nature as that hypostasized impersonal god who, having created the cosmos, now merely sits back and observes it, paring his hypostatic fingernails. However, the fundamental point of this Teaching -- namely, that an absolute or independent thing is nowhere to be found -- is self-descriptive. Therefore any attempt to equate the Teaching with eternalist doctrines can be seen to be utterly misconceived.

But this is not all. (Indeed, with recursiveness it never is all, is it?) There is yet another way in which dependent arising can be regarded as self-descriptive. More significant than being the generalization of specific exemplifications, it can also be regarded as the universalization of specific exemplifications. Here we rediscover the equivalence between dependent arising and "by means of conditions...." We have already discussed how it is that "by means of conditions..." achieves its significance as a universal. Therefore the same cannot be less true of dependent arising. Whichever term we use, the purpose of this universalization is to create a movement from the psychological level (as illustrated by Bandha's troubles) to the transcendental level (which, however, is beyond illustration). To understand how this works we must again look at holding.

The experience of the ordinary person, the puthujjana, is invariably involved with holding, the fundamental form of which is holding to a belief in self (see M. 11: i,66-7). However, this self that is believed in has the nature of being inadequate. The ordinary person thinks "I am," but he is then unable to avoid the puzzlement, "But what am I?" He will seek in one way or another to establish an identity: "I am this; such is my self." If a belief in self was adequate (as is, for example, a belief in concrete slabs) then this quest(ioning) would be unnecessary. (Nobody needs to repeatedly confirm, "This really is a concrete slab; that really is what belongs to a concrete slab.") Because the ordinary person does find it necessary to repeatedly reconstruct this self identity we may say that (unlike concrete slabs) this self that is believed in lacks essence. (See Dh. 62, in chapter 2.)

However, though it certainly lacks essence, it is not strictly correct to say that "self" lacks existence, or that "self does not exist." (To make such an assertion is to go beyond what is found in the Suttas: a dangerous move.) For the ordinary person self does exist; but he fails to recognize that it exists as a belief. But this belief in self is essentially a notion of independence: a self that is in thrall to the world's vicissitudes is no self at all. Therefore the ordinary person cannot escape the conviction that this self in which he believes is independent of his belief in it. His view is that the appropriated depends on appropriation (i.e. that things are "mine" because "I am"). Therefore he fails to see that it is appropriation which depends on the appropriated (i.e. that "belief in self" persists only for as long as things are regarded as "mine").

If something permanent could be seized then the appropriation too would be permanent. However, what is appropriated is necessarily impermanent. Therefore appropriation too is impermanent. If the view "my self" could persist independently of a "this" then there would be no means by which it could be undermined. It would be permanent. It is impermanent due to the impermanence of the conditions for that identity. Having accepted the validity of the notion "self," the ordinary person does not see the invalidity of the question, "What is this thing, my self?" Therefore he cannot avoid his puzzlement. And since he does not comprehend his error he cannot recognize that his continuing search for such a "self" can never succeed. He is enchanted by the notion that independence is to be found, and is thereby caught in a terrible dilemma.[44] For though such a quest is doomed this does not dissuade the ordinary person. It merely keeps him busy. Neither assertion nor denial of selfhood can resolve his dilemma. The Suttas reject all statements which deny "self" no less than those which assert it. The Nidána Samyutta (ii,1-132) is particularly rich in examples.

The need to identify "self" with "this" or "that" is a display of self's lack of essence. This need can be abandoned only when it is seen to be predicated upon accepting selfhood on its own terms: as being independent, permanent, and pleasurable. But when one comes to right view then it is understood that other than as (dependent upon) a belief such a self is not to be found (and also, of course, that even as dependent upon belief such an independent self is still not to be found). Only with such an understanding is it possible that the search for a self that is independent (of that belief) could be abandoned, together with the belief. There will then be no ground upon which such a belief could re-establish itself.

However, when there is belief in self then all of experience is apprehended either as "this, my self" or as "that, for my self." If it isn't "me" then it must be "mine." (Even when there is a manifest disclaimer, "not mine," there is still tacit appropriation: "it could be mine," i.e. "it is mine as 'rejected;' I can do with it as I wish, even to the extent of choosing whether it is to be accepted or refused.")

This view is continuously undermined by the unreliability of the world. ("It seems, then, that 'this, my self' is not so independent after all: the fault, of course, is with 'this,' never with 'my self.'") But nonetheless that unreliability is in itself insufficient to lead to an abandonment of the view. What is needed is to see the nature or unavoidability of this unreliability. This is what Buddhas teach.[45]

The ordinary person can potentially identify "this, my self" with any part of experience (= the five aggregates involved with holding). But such an identification will naturally tend to gravitate to the most general level of experience (or levitate, if one conceives the hierarchy to be an ascending generalization). The impermanence of "this particular ache_c in my left elbow" is far more easily exposed than that of "being one who suffers_b from arthritis." "Being one who feels_a" could be taken up yet more readily by the ordinary person as being "the nature of my self" (cf. D. 15: ii,66). Of course, "being one who suffers from arthritis" could also yield movement towards the identification, "This (my) body, my self." A. E. Housman has admirably summed up the furthest implications of such an identification:

Good creatures, do you love your lives?
And have you ears for sense?
Here is a knife, like other knives:
It cost but eighteen pence.
I need but plunge it in my heart
And down will come the sky,
And earth's foundations will depart
And all you folk will die.  (More Poems, XXVI)

The identification "this, my self" is more tenaciously involved with mental qualities and, in particular, with consciousness. For it is not only "self" that lacks essence: we have seen that consciousness too lacks essence. There is a very great difference. Consciousness lacks essence in the sense that it is simply the presence of any phenomenon (matter, feeling, perception, conditions), and is not more than that. However, "(a belief in) my self" is actively involved in seeking substantiation. A belief in self exists dependent upon craving and, the question "What am I?" having been raised, there is a quest.

Consciousness, though as negative as the notion of self, lacks the drive characteristic of "self." Yet it is seized upon, and is taken up as "this, my self." Being a "this" in relation to "my self" endows consciousness with a sort of false positivity: it comes to be conceived of as the essence of selfhood. This identification wins support from name-and-matter, for name-and-matter (as we have seen) does in fact provide that essence which consciousness lacks -- an essence which the ordinary person will then ascribe to "self."

Therefore other parts of experience, when taken up as "this, my self," tend to be so identified at a remove from holding. Consciousness is interposed. And when that identity, "this, my self," comes to be altered (as it must) to a new "this" then, due to the buffering action of consciousness, there is not normally the need for a radical re-organization of "my world." Thus, "things as they are experienced" are taken as being for "this consciousness, my self." They become known not merely as "the cognized" -- i.e. as what is for consciousness -- but as "the appropriated" -- i.e. as what is for me.[46]

Actually, the situation is considerably more complex than the account offered here, for two reasons.

1) For the ordinary person, that which is primarily identified as "this, my self" is holding (to a belief in self). Consciousness is taken up only in the second place, and the others, if at all, only in the third place. However, holding (a complex structure which is negative in regard to what is held) is not seen as holding: it is seen only in the guise of the five aggregates (and the aggregates, then, are actually concealed by the holding which mimics them) -- as if in a mirror one were to search for frown lines, while at the same time wearing a mask which was an exact replica of one's face, except that on the mask there was painted a becoming smile! We shall not attempt to expand on this observation.

2) For the ordinary person there is considerable ambiguity between "me" and "mine." Although "this" and "that" can be differentiated without difficulty[47] the difference between "my self" and "for me" is not so clear-cut as might be supposed. On the one hand there is an ever-widening schism between "this" and "my self" as "this" becomes more explicit. This growing failure of "my self" to coincide with "this" tends increasingly to endow "this" with the character of a "that (for me)." On the other hand merely by virtue of being "for me" each "that" is already granted the potential of becoming "this, my self:" such is my potency.

In the following discussion (as in the previous), rather than become tongue-tied with qualifications, when we refer to "this, my self" we shall understand that it is not the case that thereby "my self" can be localized within experience. Not only can "my self" not be localized; it cannot even be found. Whenever there is holding, then holding is pervasive, universal.

With these qualifications made we can say that whatever is identified as "this, my self" is at that time conceived of as being absolutely extra-temporal. For the notion of selfhood is inherently a notion of independence, permanence, and pleasurableness. When there is the view "this, my self" then the conditions upon which that view depends are not seen. Other conditions can be seen, but not those upon which self-view is based. Conditions are seen, but not as a universal. This means that they are seen as things, not as the nature of things, and the nature of things is that they are conditioned.

When "conditions" is not seen as a universal then "by means of conditions..." (= dependent arising) is not seen, at least insofar as it applies to "this, my self." However, "by means of conditions..." can be seen in other relationships. Dependent arising is seen, but not as a universal. This means it is seen as a thing, not as the nature of things, and the nature of things is that they are dependently arisen.[48]

When dependent arising is not seen as a universal then impermanence is not seen, at least insofar as it applies to "this, my self." However, impermanence can be seen in other relationships. Impermanence is seen, but not as a universal. This means it is seen as a thing, not as the nature of things, and the nature of things is that they arise and cease.

And when impermanence is not seen as a universal then dukkha is not seen, at least insofar as it applies to "this, my self."[49] However, dukkha can be seen in other relationships. Dukkha is seen, but not as a universal. This means it is seen as a thing, not as the nature of things, and the nature of things is that to hold them is dukkha.

And when dukkha is not seen as a universal then not-self is not seen, at least insofar as it applies to "this, my self." However, not-self can be seen in other relationships. Not-self is seen, but not as a universal. This means it is seen as a thing, not as the nature of things, and the nature of things is that they are not-self.

Therefore fundamentally dependent arising is not seen, impermanence is not seen, dukkha is not seen, not-self is not seen. What is seen is "this, my self." And "this, my self" is necessarily seen to be independent, permanent, and pleasurable. And because in his endorsement of this perception the ordinary person is sadly mistaken, therefore he experiences sorrow, lamentation, pain, grief, and despair: thus is the arising of this whole mass of dukkha.

Dukkha arises, then, dependent upon not seeing dependent arising. This is ignorance. "Non-knowledge of suffering, non-knowledge of the arising of suffering, non-knowledge of the ceasing of suffering, non-knowledge of the path leading to the ceasing of suffering -- this is called ignorance." -- M. 9: i,54, etc.[50] "By means of ignorance, conditions; by means of conditions...," then, may also be understood as "by means of ignorance, dependent arising." And the corollary is, of course, "with ceasing of ignorance, ceasing of conditions; with ceasing of conditions...," which may also be understood as "with ceasing of ignorance, ceasing of dependent arising." This indicates to the ordinary person how he can resolve his dilemma.

His dilemma is that he cannot perceive dependent arising, he cannot perceive impermanence, he cannot perceive dukkha, he cannot perceive not-self. And he cannot perceive them in their vital sense because he does not see how to stop perceiving "this, my self." When, as a Buddhist, he earnestly tries, he finds that by a "heads-on" approach ("This is not-self; that is not-self; nor that nor that nor that...") he does not succeed. All he succeeds in doing is, at most, to change the identification from "this, my self" to "something else, my self" (and, probably, also discovering an ever-deepening sense of frustration and futility in the effort).

This is the identical dilemma that he faces when he decides to "give up everything:" no matter how sincere his resolve, no matter how intense his effort, he finds that that resolve and effort are insufficient. It is undercut at once, always, and everywhere, by attachment. To resolve such a dilemma evidently requires something more than the simple wish to do so. For such a simple and straightforward effort, whether to perceive impermanence or to give up all attachment, will simply lead him back to the perception that he can't.

But we know that this is not entirely true. For although it is sometimes very difficult, yet we have all succeeded in ending certain "narrow" deceptions (such as "cigarette smoking is good for you," or "the way to cure poison ivy infection is by scratching"). And we know, too, that the Buddha's Teaching offers itself as that means whereby one can end even the "broadest" or most fundamental of deceptions, that of conceit.

But how, then, is this to be done? If a "heads-on" approach continually fails, then clearly an indirect movement is indicated.[51] The development of any particular perception of dependent arising, or of impermanence, or of dukkha, or of not-self -- which is entirely possible for the ordinary person, within the limits described above -- can lead to a universal perception.

It must be emphasized that by "a universal perception" I do not mean "seeing the whole of experience." (This, anyway, is an impossibility, inasmuch as the seeing, which is part of the experience, is itself not seen. Or if it is seen then the means whereby it is seen -- namely, a higher order of reflexive attention, which is also part of the experience -- is itself not seen. And so on.) Even if we (think we) see dukkha "everywhere" we have not thereby perceived dukkha as a universal. At best we have seen it as no more than a generality.

But dukkha can be seen as a universal in even the most specific things (e.g. "the in-and-out breaths," or anything else to do with body; or "this ache_c in my elbow," or anything else to do with feeling; or "this fear that my house may be on fire," or anything else to do with mind; and so on). It is seen as a universal if it is seen as an instance of the way all experience is necessarily organized. In other words, to see structure structurally we must see that it is dependent upon exemplification. It is futile, then, to try to see the "bare" principle. What must be seen is the particular living relationship upon which the structure is founded, and to see that it too arises, endures, and ceases dependently. It is towards this direct intuition on the most intimate level of being that the Buddha guides our efforts. When dukkha (or impermanence or the others) is seen as a universal in "this particular perception" then at that time there will not be seen not-dukkha (and the others) elsewhere.

To achieve this universalized perception requires dedication and perseverance, inasmuch as it is a perception which is at odds with all that holding to a belief in self involves. It is achieved through intelligent experimentation with reflexion and its concomitants (i.e. the noble eightfold path), using the Teaching as a guide (see e.g. A. VI,98-104: iii,441-444)[52] lest one confuse concept with percept.

But even then this perception is in itself insufficient; for when the ordinary person achieves it he still has at the same time a belief in self. Though he sees nothing he can take up as independent, permanent, and pleasurable, yet there remains the view that there is a person, a somebody, to be found. In this unstable position it is necessary for the ordinary person, using proper attention, to apply his perception of the universal necessity of dependent arising (and of the others) to this co-existing view.

Reference to our circular analogue may help him to understand this. But should he not succeed in this then his perception of universality can be lost. Indeed, he will probably find it difficult enough to maintain this perception. And, the perception lost, he would find himself to be still in the throes of wrong view and of the dukkha that arises dependent upon wrong view.

Fortunately, however, there is the Teaching. One who has achieved this perception of universality is now in a position to fully utilize the guidance of the Teaching's outside perspective. If he chooses to not opt for pleasure then he can now acquiesce by accepting, even against craving's view of things, that this Teaching points the way to the end of dukkha.

When such a movement is made, then this individual will understand the meaning of "with ceasing of ignorance, ceasing of conditions." He will no longer be puzzled, as he was before, as to how there could be a ceasing of conditions (and of consciousness and the rest) and yet for an individual to remain. For even fully purified beings surely continue to breathe both in and out, and to think, to ponder, to perceive, feel, regard, intend, and so on. And yet all of these things are identified in various contexts as conditions. But now he will understand that "with ceasing of ignorance, ceasing of conditions" means that "those conditions which depend upon ignorance cease when ignorance ceases; and ignorance, or non-seeing, ceases when those conditions are seen to be dependent upon ignorance."

And what are those conditions which depend upon ignorance? They are the conditions dependent upon which there is the identity "this, my self." And, as such, they are not seen as conditions. Not being seen (for what they are), they cannot be further specified. Other conditions -- conditions which are seen -- are not conditions which depend upon ignorance. Only those conditions which are not recognized as such are implicated in the arising of "this consciousness, my self" or "this name-and-matter, my self" or any other possible identification of "my self."

Whereas previously such a person had been unable to see craving except on craving's own terms, now he has this Teaching to offer him an outside view. This view is not locked into those conditions which arise dependent upon ignorance. He can thereby see, as he could not before, that contrary to craving's view of things, all experience that is involved with "I," "me," and "mine" is wholly dukkha. There is (pace St.-Exupéry) no oasis of pleasure to be found within this desert of dukkha. Understanding this, wrong view is thereby exposed. It is concealment (of dukkha and of flight from dukkha) that, as the characteristics of ignorance and craving, generate and re-generate dukkha. With dukkha now fully exposed as concealment, as flight, that recursive structure which had infected all of experience becomes destabilized and must collapse. It is by such a movement that one ceases to be an ordinary person (puthujjana) and becomes a noble disciple (ariyasávaka), one who sees the noble eightfold path as the way to the ceasing of dukkha.

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Footnotes:

41. However, there is one way in which we might properly regard "conditions" as being intention. We have seen that in experience there is not only a simple hierarchy (e.g. "the clock tower" is more specific than "the Fort," which is more specific than "Colombo," which is more specific than "Sri Lanka") but also a hierarchy of "for"-ness (e.g. the cup is for containing tea; tea is for drinking, which is for quenching thirst, which is for comfort; etc.). What a thing is for can be regarded as its intentions ("potentials" would be more precise, but the imprecision is not fatal). Therefore we might understand "By means of conditions..." to mean "Because there is a hierarchy of intentions (or of potentials)...." "Structure" is a more fundamental category than any category within that structure. In this sense, then, "conditions," as intention, might properly be regarded as "surpassing even consciousness." Although herein we will not discuss this approach further, yet to the extent that the idea proves to be isomorphic with experience it could be (for some people) conducive to setting aside mistaken notions and coming to see the uses of right view. [Back to text]

42. The single exception is áyusankhárá, conditions for life (i.e. things upon which life depends). These are said (at M. 43: i,295-96) to be "things that are not experienced." We are never told what any of these unexperienced conditions might be. Contemporary theory, though, might indicate lymphatic circulation and the firing of neural impulses as examples, inasmuch as the body would probably not survive the total cessation of either. But though we can know about these life conditions indirectly, or conceptually, nobody actually experiences, say, the replication of his own DNA as part of ongoing cellular activity. To what extent such phenomena are merely reified conceptual devices, designed to organize and rationalize what is directly experienced, is a question which fortunately we need not decide here. But that there are things which, though beyond our direct experience, are capable of maintaining (or of terminating) life should not evoke surprise. However, those life conditions which lie beyond the realm of experience can have no direct bearing on the problem of dukkha (which is the problem of craving-based experience). Therefore, following the lead of the Suttas, we shall say no more about them. Such irrelevancies can best be left to the physiologists of the world. [Back to text]

43. The texts are filled with examples of applications of this Teaching at the psychological level, but clearly there can be but one "example" of universalization. If, that is, a singularity can be called an example. But it is an instance which is repeated time and again (with variations) throughout the Suttas. "Whatever is matter, past, future, or present, internal or external, coarse or fine, inferior or superior, far or near, all matter (is to be regarded as): 'Not, this is mine; not, I am this; not, this is my self.' Thus there is seeing what is with right understanding." (The same formula is then repeated for feeling, perception, conditions, and consciousness.) This should not be understood as a call to examine individually each and every bit of matter, past, future, and present, in order to determine its nature and then to conclude, on the basis of this statistical survey, that indeed all matter very probably is not mine, etc. Clearly a different sort of examination is being called for here. [Back to text]

44. Despite the rationalized way in which "belief in self" is presented here, the belief, questioning, questing, and identifying are not overt and planned acts (though they are certainly intentional), at least in their initial arising. It is only subsequently that they become explicit as thought and thought-out. In any experience involved with holding no part of that experience can be found which is not already infected (such is the epidemic nature of conceit). Even in those meditative levels wherein thinking and pondering (speech conditions) have ceased, for one not fully enlightened there is still conceit. The problem, then, is more fundamental even than thought, let alone language. [Back to text]

45. Earlier it was said that dukkha arises due to the uncertainty inherent in the world. Actually this is but half the truth. There are two sources of dukkha in the world, not just one: the uncertainty inherent in the world (inasmuch as I could suffer loss, failure, or death at any time) and the certainty inherent in the world (inasmuch as sooner or later I certainly will suffer loss, failure, and death). Craving tends to stabilize pleasure, but the uncertainty of the world tends to destabilize it. Craving tends to destabilize dukkha, but the certainty of the world tends to stabilize it. Inevitably, the world wins; but craving always demands another chance. If it were not for these two things, certainty and uncertainty, the world would be a wonderful place indeed -- if, that is, there could still be such a thing as "the world." [Back to text]

46. That there is a propensity to identify selfhood with consciousness is apparent, of course, not only from structural considerations or textual exegesis. We have only to look around us. Adherents of many schools of philosophy (e.g. idealism) and psychology (e.g. Jungianism, transpersonalism), as well as of religions in general, regard consciousness as being in some sense fundamental or absolute. So do other thinkers, including many existentialists and even some advocates of current teachings which nevertheless go by the label of "Buddhism." But I know of no school which seriously ascribes selfhood to the other categories we have been considering.
   For example, we find in spiritual literature much talk of "pure consciousness." But there seems to be nothing said of "pure conditions," "pure perception," "pure feeling," or "pure matter" ("pure" in the sense of "nothing but") in today's mystical marketplace. (Except that, possibly, "pure matter" might be accepted by the most extreme adherents of logical positivism -- but then, that breed are hardly to be found shopping in such a marketplace.) Too, there is a "Cosmic Consciousness" movement, but at present there seems to be no interest (perhaps unfortunately) in "Cosmic Name-and-Matter," "Cosmic Ageing-and-Death," or any of the others (with the arguable exception of an underground "Cosmic Craving"). [Back to text]

47. This (or that) is not to say that the differentiation does not have a degree of arbitrariness. In English we take it for granted that any thing must be either "this" or "that," "here" or "there." But in Sinhalese, for example, the division is seen as four-fold: a thing is either "this/here," or "that/there (but close to hand)," or "that/there (not close but within sight)," or "that/there (too far away to be seen)." But since appropriation is more fundamental than language (a dog, for example, can display greed but cannot verbalize it), these differences do not alter the basic problem. [Back to text]

48. There are various passages in the texts (e.g. D. 14: ii,31-35; S. XII,10 & 65: ii,10-11 & 104-07) wherein the Buddha says that he considered dependent arising in its various aspects before his enlightenment. This raises the question, "If perception of dependent arising marks the difference between the enlightened individual and the ordinary person, then how can these passages be understood?" The usual reply is that this perception took place in "the moment before his enlightenment" (which again raises the ambiguous notion of moments), and was the impelling perception that brought about that comprehension.
   However, the texts make clear that it was in perceiving "arising" and "ceasing" that there arose "the eye (of truth), knowledge, wisdom, gnosis, light" (the usual formula for the initial perception). But the consideration of dependent arising preceded this perception (by how long an interval is not said) and was therefore the reflexion of one as yet unenlightened. The usual answer, then, explains nothing. It merely leaves us with the plaint, "It happened to him; but I also think about dependent arising. Why doesn't it happen to me?" But now, distinguishing between things and the nature of things (i.e. that things arise and cease), we can understand how it can be that the ordinary person is fully able to see dependent arising in a certain sense -- as every reader of this essay will be able to confirm -- but that this does not mean that he necessarily sees it in its vital sense, as a universal. [Back to text]

49. Actually, there is one way in which dukkha can be seen as "this, my self:" when it is dukkha itself (e.g. "this ache_c in my elbow") that is taken up as "this, my self" ("good grief!"). In such a case it is seen as dukkhadukkhatá, the sorrow of dukkha ("woe is me"). But it is still not seen as sankháradukkhatá, the sorrow of conditions; for the conditions upon which belief in self depends are not seen. Nor is it seen as viparinámadukkhatá, the sorrow of changeability; for the impermanence of those conditions is of course also not seen. These two sorts of sorrow can be seen by the ordinary person only in secondary relationships, never in this vital one. [Back to text]

50. This Sutta goes on to say that "with the arising of cankers (ásavá) there is arising of ignorance." But later we are told: "With the arising of ignorance there is arising of cankers." And what are these cankers? "There are three cankers: the canker of sensuality, the canker of being, the canker of ignorance." Here then, the recursive structure of ignorance appears in yet-greater detail. Not only do cankers and ignorance arise by means of one another, but one of the cankers is the canker of ignorance. (Seven ways to abandon cankers are discussed in M. 2: i,6-12. See also S. XXII,101: iii,152-53.) Ignorance, then, is not merely a failure to be adequately informed. ("I didn't know the gun was loaded.") It is a deliberate refusal to look at that which is at all times and all places there to be seen. ("I didn't know that pain hurts.") It is a refusal supported by a recursive hierarchical structure of successive generations and generalizations of denial and a spectrum of successive specifications of dukkha. [Back to text]

51. "In all fighting, the direct method may be used for joining battle, but indirect methods will be needed to secure victory." Sun Tzu, The Art of War. [Back to text]

52. E. M. Hare's rendering (in Gradual Sayings III) of anulomikáya khantiyá samannágato as "living in harmony and patience" is quite misleading. The phrase actually means "endowed with compliance in conformity" (with the Teaching).

Compliance, of austerities, is chief.
"Extinction is supreme," the Buddhas say.
No ascetic causes others grief.
No recluse does oppress in any way. -- Dh. 184 [Back to text]