中華佛學學報第07期 (p385-417)： (民國92年)，臺北：中華佛學研究所，http://www.chibs.edu.tw/
Chung-Hwa Buddhist Studies, No. 07, (2003)
Taipei: The Chung-Hwa Institute of Buddhist Studies
ISSN: 1026-969X

An Examination of Vipassanā (Insight) Meditation from a Theravāda Perspective

1. Introduction

In the Pāli Canon, the methods ofmeditation taught by the Buddha consist of two systems, that is, thedevelopment of serenity or calm (samatha) and the development of insight (vipassanā).[1]　However, there are some controversial issues regarding serenitymeditation and insight meditation for both contemporary scholarship andpractitioners of Theravāda Buddhism. First of all, there is a debate concerning which technique is thecrucial practice in order to attain nibbāna. On the one hand, Winston King suggested that, as regardstechniques for achieving nibbāna in the practice of Theravāda Buddhism, insight(vipassanā) meditation is themost direct and exclusive way to attain the final goal.[2]　On the other hand, Johannes Bronkhorst (1993) argued that thedevelopment of serenity (samatha) is the innovative and distinguishingmeditation in early Buddhism. Thesecond issue instead of emphasizing the tension between practice of calm andpractice of insight, Lance Cousins pointed out that the important point is howmuch calm and insight should be developed at the different stages of the path.[3]　The third issue is whether insight (vipassanā) meditation bears a relationship to calm meditation asfar as attaining enlightenment is concerned.[4]　 For instance, Vetter suggested that there is a “Discriminatinginsight” (Pāli: vipassanā / Sanskrit: vipaśyanā) which “conquering desire, other cankers and, thereby, ending rebirth”　

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The third issue is the mostsignificant of all because it includes the main point of the first two issues,that is, what is the real relationship between serenity meditation and insightmeditation and to what extent they should be developed in terms of obtainingliberation. The purpose of thisessay, therefore, is firstly focus on clarifying vipassanā, and vipassanā meditation. Then, itgoes on investigating into the relationship between vipassanā and samatha (clam meditation) in consideration ofattaining enlightenment. Theapproach employed in this essay will not only use the literature, but also takethe actual practice into account.

The primary sources employed inthis essay are the Pāli suttas, which include the Dīgha Nikāya, Majjhima Nikāya, SaṃyuttaNikāya, Aṅguttara Nikāya, and the Paṭisambhidāmagga.[7] 　The second resources include:the Visuddhimagga, the mostinfluential work of Buddhaghosa, and some of the contemporary works ofTheravādin masters and scholars.

2. What is vipassanā

In this section, this essay willdiscuss the confusion of vipassanā and vipassanā meditation,and continues further to probe whether insight (vipassanā) is the same as insight meditation (vipassanā meditation). In orderto avoid confusion, hereafter this essay will employ the word “vipassanā” instead of using thetranslation “insight”, and use the term “vipassanāmeditation” or “the cultivation of vipassanā”rather than the rendering of “insight meditation”.

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2.1 Theconfusion among vipassanā, paññā and vipassanā meditation

According to the ways in whichthe notion of vipñassanā is used by some scholars, there is a confusionamong vipassanā (vipaśyanā), paññā (prajñā),and vipassanā meditation (vipaśyanā meditation). As Rupert Gethin (1988:198-201) haspointed out, a number of scholars, such as De La Vallee Poussin, Frauwallner,Schmithausen, Vetter, Griffiths, and Gombrich,[8]　 partly assume that the nature of vipassanā meditationis “a rather intellectual and rational conception”.[9]　 The fact that Poussin interprets the notion of vipassanā as an intellectual achievement can be discerned in the followingstatement: “one may discriminate in the Buddhist sources, both ancient andscholastic, between two opposed theories…… the theory of prajñā (or vipaśyanā) which makes salvation a purely or mainly intellectualachievement, and the theory which makes salvation the goal of ascetic andecstatic disciplines.”[10]　 Vetter (1988:35) is certainly sympathetic to Poussin when he says:“discriminating insight (paññā orprajñā) is knowing that things we normally consider to be the self or belongingto the self cannot be or belong to the self if this self is conceived of as notsuffering. To facilitate this‘disidentification’ the main object of false identification, the human person,is divided into constituents or components; each part is examined as to whetherit can be the self and　

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The previous information showsthree problematic issues: (1)whether paññā is the same as vipassanā;(2) whether vipassanā (or paññā; insight ) is the same as vipassanā meditation or the cultivation of insight (vipassanā bhāvanā); (3) whether the achievementof insight (vipassanā) ismerely carried out by intellectual activity. In the following passage, this essay will clarify thesethree issues in turn.

2.2 Therelationship between paññā and vipassanā

Poussin, and Gombrich pointed outthat, basically, paññā has the same meaning as vipassanā, yet they used different words to translate paññā (prajñā) and vipassanā (vipaśyanā). Poussin translated vipassanā (vipaśyanā) as“contemplation” and paññā (prajñā) as “discrimination betweenthings”;[12]　 while Gombrich translated paññā as “insight” and vipassanā (vipaśyanā) as“intuition”.[13]　 Although Poussin translated these two words into different Englishterms, he put both of them in the same scale and said that they refer to thesame intellectual means of spiritual liberation.[14]　Similarly, Gombrich also agreed that these two words basically havethe same meaning, though they were employed in different contexts as technicalterms.[15]　 Although Vetter did not explicitly make this point in his book, The Ideas and Meditative Practices of Early Buddhism,　

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Therefore, it may be suggestedthat the issue discussed by the above scholars is “something about vipassanā”. The reason for using “something about vipassanā” instead of “vipassanā meditation” (vipassanā bhāvanā) is that there appears to be a confusion among vipassanā, paññā, and vipassanā meditation.

Since the clarification of therelationship between paññā and vipassanā requires more detailed investigation on the relationship of vipassanā and vipassanā meditation, this essay will focus ondiscussing the later relationship mainly, and mentions the relationship of vipassanā and paññā subordinarily. Here we accept the scholarly consensus, i.e. vipassanā has the samebasic meaning as paññā provisionally, and go further to conclude that therelation between paññā and vipassanā is that paññā includes vipassanā, namely vipassanā is a sort of paññā.

2.3 Vipassanāand vipassanā meditation

As we can see in section 2.2, thenotion of vipassanā has been confused with the notion of vipassanā meditation. Forinstance, when the scholar mean to say some kind of vipassanā (insight) orpaññā (wisdom),　

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In order to clarify thedifferences between vipassanā and vipassanā meditation,it is helpful to define the exact meanings of these words and to consult thePāli canon. According to the Pāli-English Dictionary, the word vipassanā refers to the inward vision, insight, intuition or introspection.[19]　It derives from the verb vi-passati. “Vi” is a prefix and refers toexpansion in variety or in detail, and passatmeans “to see”. Hence, vipassanā, the noun form of vi-passati, can mean “seeing an object in detailor “seeing an object in many ways” or “seeing or penetrating an objectthoroughly”.[20]　 Furthermore, there is a deeper meaning when this word is employed ina more technical sense. Buddhaghosa, the most influential commentator of Theravāda Buddhism,defined vipassanā as that which “penetrated into dharmasas they are in themselves, and destroys the darkness of delusion, which coversup the own-being of dharmas”.[21]　 The Buddhist Dictionaryalso goes further to suggest that vipassanā is “the intuitive light flashing forthand exposing the truth of the impermanency, misery, and impersonality of allcorporeal and mental phenomena of existence.”[22]　Here we find that vipassanā cultivates the realisation of thethreefold nature of conditioned existence (lakkhaṇa)──impermanence, suffering and non-self.

The definitions mentioned abovecan be found in some Pāli suttas as well. In Pāli Agantukā sutta, the calm (samatha) and insight (vipassanā) are defined as follows:

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These suttas show threesignificant points relevant to vipassanā. (1) Vipassanā is cultivated (bhāvetabbā) by full comprehension(abhiññā). (2) The word“cultivate” (bhāveti) is applied to depict the development of vipassanā meditation. (3) When vipassanā and calm are cultivated(bhāvitā), they will penetrate many things. Here let us investigate briefly bhāvet” and abhiññā first.

In the text the words bhāvatabbā,bhāvehi and bhāvitā are derived fromthe verb bhāveti.[25]　In a number of Pāli suttas,[26]　when the practice of vipassanā meditation is mentioned, words derivedfrom bhāveti are always employed. The term bhāveti means“practise” or “cultivate”.[27]　

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And yet what sort of quality is vipassanā? This question brings our attention to another significantterm: abhiññā or full comprehension. According to the Pāli-English Dictionary,[30]　 Abhiññā refers to certain conditions conducive to the acquisition ofcalmness, special knowledge, special wisdom and nibbāna.

Abhiññā is derived from the verb,jānāti, which means to know, to have or gain knowledge, to experience, to beaware of or to find out.[31]　 That is, abhiññā is a special knowledge obtained through experienceand awareness. The verysignificant words which we should pay attention to　

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Therefore, it may be concludedthat vipassanā is an intuitiveinsight which can be brought out by means of meditation and when it becomesmature and powerful enough, it becomes a special wisdom (paññā) which isconducive to attaining enlightenment. However, vipassanā meditationrefers to the technique of the cultivation of vipassanā or the process of bringing out the power of intuitive vipassanā. Thus, the word shares similar meaning with paññā is“vipassanā” rather than “vipassanāmeditation”.

In the following section, thisessay will go further to probe into the characteristics of vipassanā to see what is itsrelationship to paññā, whether vipassanāis simply a sort of intellectual activity.

2.4 Thecharacteristics of vipassanā

2.4.1 The function of vipassanā

Many suttas which mention vipassanā usually show that thefunction of vipassanā is toextinguish greed, hatred and ignorance. In other words, the suttas point out that the nature of vipassanā is supramundane. This notion can be found in SaṃyuttaNikāya:

In the first sutta, the term“Uncompounded”, according to the same sutta, refers to the destruction ofgreed, hatred and ignorance. Sincethese three mental illnesses are the root of all mental intoxicants, to destroythese three mental illnesses means to eradicate all defilements. In addition, the second sutta goesfurther to distinguish the different kinds of abandonment found in samatha and vipassanā, that is, samathahelps to get rid of lust and makes the practitioner concentrate his mind, whilevipassanā uproots ignorance and frees the practitioner from saṃsāra, the transmigration of rebirth.[35]　This information suggests that both the function and the nature of vipassanā are different from the intellect which ordinary people are endowedwith. The detailed discussion ofthis issue can be seen in Visuddhimagga:

2.4.2 The state of vipassanā

The aforementioned informationsuggests that the most essential difference between vipassanā and worldlyperception and consciousness is that the former can penetrate into thethreefold fundamental characteristics (lakkhaṇa) of everything, and leads toliberation while the latter two cannot. This statement is supported by Majjhima Nikāya 73, and the Paṭisambhidāmagga,[37]　and can also be ascertained inthe teachings of two contemporary influential meditation masters of Thailand:Acharn Chah and Buddhadāsa.

According to Majjhima Nikāya 73,[38]　 when the practitioner’s　

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2.4.3 The stage of obtaining vipassanā

In which stage vipassanā becomes mature? No decisive answer could be found inthe Pāli suttas. Yet we did findsome descriptions where the practitioner whose vipassanā becomesmature when the practitioner attains the stream-entry path (sotāpatti-magga) with the first jhāna (the first level of calm). According to Saṃyutta Nikāya, when the practitioner obtains calm and vipassanā, he or shecan cease perception and feeling.[42]　 MN151 also says that when the practitioner develops serenity and vipassanā, he or she stays in a happyand glad state, and trains in wholesome states all the time.[43]

The Paṭisambhidāmagga gives a more detailed analysis. The text shows that the one who hasalready developed vipassanā becomes dispassionate, causes greed tofade away, does not cling to anything and finally attains cessation andrelinquishes all.[44] We found that in the　

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According to the previousdiscussion, it may be concluded that the sort of vipassanā which leads to attaining enlightenment is a sort ofintuitive insight whose function is beyond rational analysis, speculations, andassumption. By means ofmeditation, it becomes mature in the stream-entry path with the concentrationof the first jhāna which inturn becomes powerful and sharpened enough to penetrate into the nature of allphysical and mental world. As aresult, the practitioner can achieve the realization of the true nature ofimpermanence, suffering and non-self and then attains to nibbāna.[50]

With regard to the relationshipbetween vipassanā and paññā, as we can see from theprevious information. If vipassanā can be classified into a kind of paññā, it is a sort of wisdom (paññā) which is endowed with insightful power and after beingstrengthened and sharpened by meditation, this insight (vipassanā) is powerful enough to see through all phenomena andcan lead to enlightenment. Therefore, it is a kind of supramundane paññā in particular meaningrather than the ordinary intellectual activity.

Here after this essay will goeson to discuss what is the technique which brings out this insight and why itdiffers from intellect activity.

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3. Vipassanā meditation

In this section, the essay willfocus on examining whether vipassanā meditationis a purely intellectual activity. We will investigate this question by examining three aspects: (1) the main objects observed by the vipassanā practitioner; (2) theessential principles of vipassanāmeditation; and (3) the process of the cultivation of vipassanā. Thecorresponding teaching of the Pāli suttas and of contemporary vipassanā masters will be taken intoconsideration.

3.1 The mainobjects observed by the vipassanā practitioner

As King (1980:82-102) pointed outthe main object which the vipassanā practitioner contemplates on is the“self-as-experiencing” object, particularly the five aggregates. The key point for taking these factorsinto investigation is that they are intrinsic to the practitioner’sexperiences. It is due to theseexperiences that the practitioner wrongly considers them to have a substantialexistence, so that due to thinking in this way, he or she transmigrates againand again. Therefore, to penetrateinto the nature of these factors and to see what they really are is theessential aim of vipassanā meditation. Accordingly, the observance of the body-mind as it functionsis the central and most crucial focus of vipassanā meditation. We find examples in many suttas. Here is a typical example:

As we mentioned before, vipassanā is cultivated by abhiññā,thus we know the five aggregates, i.e. the material form aggregate, the feelingaggregate, the perception aggregate, the formations aggregate and consciousnessaggregate affected by clinging, are the main objects which are contemplated bythe vipassanāpractitioner. In addition, fromthis sutta, we find the key point of choosing these five objects is that theyare “affected by clinging”. Thisis, what the practitioner concentrates on is not the abstract conception dealtwith by intellect; rather, it issomething that actually occurs in one’s daily life and relates to one’sfeelings closely.

3.2 Theessential principles of vipassanāmeditation

We mentioned previously thatcontemplation on threefold nature of impermanence, suffering and not-self ofall things is the heart ofdeveloping vipassanā. In turn, it is this unique techniquewhich leads the practitioner to achieve nibbanā. However, it also seems to be the reasonwhich causes the confusion between vipassanāmeditation and intellectual exercises. For instance, Vetter (1988:35) assumed that discriminatinginsight can attain enlightenment and asks for no meditation. Furthermore, he explained that thetechnique is to know that the human being is made up by constituents. The themes dealt with by Vetter arevirtually the essential issues of vipassanāmeditation; however, the technique which was suggested by him is different fromwhat we found in the Pāli suttas.

Firstly, the Paṭisambhidāmagga suggests that to practise vipassanā is to contemplate the threefoldcharacteristics within all dhammas.[52] The text　

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The mentioned eighteen insightspossessed by vipassanā alsoshow that these threefold characteristics are the essential principle ofcultivating vipassanā althoughthe actual objects observed by the practitioner are different. The reason for meditating on thesethree characteristics is that they are a natural law. Once the practitioner penetrates into these characteristics,he or she will find out the nature of things and realize that what people graspat is an illusory substance. Furthermore, since these threefold characteristics exist intrinsicallyand they do not possess inherent existence, what the practitioner needs to dois simply observe it and find out its true nature. Practising the technique requires neither speculation norfurther assumptions.

3.3 The processand techniques of vipassanā meditation(or cultivation of vipassanā)

According to the Satipaṭṭhānasutta, the most famous sutta with regard to vipassanā meditation, the process and techniques are as follows:

This sutta uses the body as anobserved object, so the practitioner observes the arising and ceasing ofphenomena which appear in his or her body. This sutta goes onnarrating the observing of arising and ceasing which happen in feelings(vedanā), mental states (citta)and mental objects (dhamma). That is, the arising and ceasing of allphenomena of physical and mental world. The Sāmañña-phala Sutta[54]　goes further to explain thedetail of this technique:

The same practice is alsoemployed in hearing a sound with the ear, smelling an odour with the nose,tasting a flavour with the tongue, sensing a tactile object with the body orbecoming conscious of an image with the mind.

The aforementioned suttas showthat, the most essential technique employed to contemplate impermanence,suffering and non-self is to observe or to be aware of these threefoldcharacteristics. He neither analyzesthe object nor does he or she thinks of or judges anything. Whatever the practitioner sees orwhatever he or she does, he or she merely notices everything. As Acharn Chah pointed out, “turn yourtranquil mind toward sights, sounds, smells, tastes, touches, thoughts, mental objects, 　

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All the above techniques, fromthe main observing objects to the process of vipassanā meditation, suggest that the cultivation of vipassanā does not requireintellectual analysis or speculation. Yet, one may argue that the developing of vipassanā still can not avoid intellectual activity by virtue ofthe practitioner using conceptual realization and categorization. For instance, Acharn Chah suggestedthat no matter what sort of activity occurs in one’s mind, in addition to beingaware of his or her emotional reaction, the practitioner should see it in adeeper level, that is, to categorize everything that arises into impermanence,suffering and non-self.[57]

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This suggests that even toobserve or to contemplate the threefold characteristics, one is involved in“realizing” and “categorizing” the activities which present themselves to thepractitioner. For, if thepractitioner does not realize or categorize the activities, there may be only aplain mind or other thoughts come up to the practitioner’s mind. However, these intellectual activitiesare subtle and slight mental activities. Furthermore, these mental activities may be said to happen inthe “background” of cultivating vipassanā rather than in the “foreground” of vipassanā practice. This meansthat those subtle intellectual exercises occur more subconsciously instead ofin the manner of logically analyzing and deducing. Therefore, the intellectual activities which are involved inconstructing other new ideas, such as discriminating, judging and inferringetc. are different from the technique employed in vipassanā meditation.

Another significant underlyingmessage is that this sort of technique may be practised at any moment. The practitioner may concentrate his orher mind on any object which occurs to him or her. Accordingly, to sit down with the posture of crossed legs isnot the most crucial prerequisite because, according to the SatipaṭthānaSutta[58]　 and the teachings of meditation masters, this technique can bepractised when walking, standing, lying or sitting as well as any physical andmental movement. Therefore, as King (1980:94) pointedout, vipassanā meditation canbe applied much more readily to daily life than jhāna concentration can be. Although vipassanāmeditation also needs some periods and special modes of concentration toachieve enlightenment, it is still able to extend to all types of lives andactivities.

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4. The relationship between samatha and vipassanā meditation in terms of achieving enlightenment

The argument regarding this themecan be divided into three different opinions. First of all, Buddhaghosa pointed out that samatha meditation is the tool forachieving vipassanā meditation. The character and the quality of thejhāna states, apart from the state of neither-perception-nor-non-perception(there, no such factors are available for investigation), bear a closerelationship to the quality of attaining the Path.[59]　Likewise, King suggested that the mind, quitened and sharpened bythe jhānas, is conducive to the vipassanā process but it only requires moderate concentration.[60]

However, Vetter (1988:36) arguedthat the teaching of discriminating insight in MN 22 and MN 74 asks forno support of jhāna meditation.

The aforementioned argument canbe classified into three issues. Firstly, in terms of achieving liberation,whether vipassanā meditation should be supported by jhānameditation. Secondly, if theprocess of vipassanā calls for jhāna meditation,what sort of meditation does it ask for? Thirdly, in what sense does vipassanāachievement not necessitateany jhāna meditation? All thesethree involve the term “jhāna meditation”; accordingly, we will probe into thisterm first. Then we will go oninquiring into the relationship between jhāna meditation and vipassanā meditation in terms ofattaining enlightenment.

According to the Pāli English Dictionary, jhāna (Sanskrit: dhyāna) refers to meditationon an object or burning up anything adverse. Literally it means meditation.[61]　Vajirañāṇa pointed out that, according to the usage in Pāli cannon and its commentaries, there are two meanings of this word.　

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Following the aforementionedjhāna definitions, we found that the above argument concerning vipassanā meditation and jhāna meditation also includes these twomeanings. Buddhaghosa’s view isthat vipassanā is related tothe stages of jhāna and, similarly, King states that it contains the jhānastages of meditation. Vetter’sdefinition seems to denote only the first meaning, i.e. concentration, becausehe wrote: “……dhyāna-meditation, some concentration in examining theconstituents……”.[64]　 But here we can come to no definite conclusion from this statement,and we can only assume that the jhāna meditationsuggested by him includes both meanings of jhāna. In this regard, there is someresource which counters what Vetter suggested about one can achieve liberationwithout the help of meditation.

According to the Paṭisambhidāmagga,[65]　 the practitioner reaches arahantship by four paths or by one of thefour paths. What four? (1) Thepractitioner develops vipassanāpreceded by samatha. This means that　

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The above information makes itclear that, traditionally, in order to attain enlightenment, the practitioneris supposed to practise samathatogether with vipassanā, andthe issue is not of serenity preceding vipassanāor vipassanā preceding samatha or these two workingtogether. We can find that,Buddhaghosa and King held similar ideas to the tradition, even though theydiffered as to what extent of samathathe practitioner should have.

Based on the information thisessay reveals in section 2.4.3, itmay be suggested that complete vipassanā which can penetrate into the truenature of all things, requires the first jhāna concentrations while practicing vipassanā meditation only needs moderate concentration. As Buddhadāsa pointed out in the “Insight by the Nature Method”, “the intensity of　

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The paragraphs mentioned by MN22 only briefly describe thetechniques of perceiving (samanupassati) the impermanence, suffering andnon-self of the five aggregates. It says, after observing in this way, the practitioner is disgusted with(nibbindate) these mental and non-mental factors and frees himself from desireand destroys rebirth.[70]　 It appears to be too brief to do a further investigation. Therefore, we go further to consult MN 74. This sutta mentions that Sāriputta is released from thecankers after hearing the instruction. The sutta describes it thus:

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According to this information,Vetter suggests that Sāriputta freed himself from fetters by “thinking over”the instruction of the Buddha instead of going through genuine meditation. The reason why he judged that Sāriputta obtains liberation withoutmeditation is because Sāriputta, accompanied by other people, is fanning and isnot sitting quietly.

There are some problematic issuesrelating to the above assumption. Firstly, in terms of attaining the fourstages of jhāna, it may be true that one cannot attain these stages whilemoving. However, it is not true ifwe take the practice of vipassanā intoaccount. For, according to vipassanā meditation, the posture isnot the most essential factor for achievement. It is the mind of the practitioner which is concentratedenough to penetrate into the threefold characteristics of things. Secondly, by that time, if Sāriputtadid not concentrate his mind on the teaching and go on to meditate on it, it isimpossible for him to eradicate his attachments and liberate himself fromcankers. That is, if he cannotconcentrate his mind on-one-point-object (whatever is a thought or an object)to some extent, and last long enough to penetrate into the nature of thatobject, he cannot attain the realization. Besides, even it the realization could occur suddenly, it does notexclude that Sāriputta may have meditate constantly for quite a long time andmay have cultivated and sharpened his insight powerful enough to see throughthe nature of all phenomena. Thirdly, if the realization can be obtained simply by “thinking over” anobject by ordinary intelligent, why　

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Therefore, it may be suggestedthat in terms of liberation, it does require special meditation, i.e. vipassanā meditation, to facilitate the development of insight and it cannotattain enlightenment barely by intellectual thinking. Even though this vipassanāmeditation need not be supported by certain jhāna stages, it does require some intensity of concentration. Furthermore, the techniques, theobserving object and the mode employed by the vipassanā practitionersare entirely different from the intellectual thinking per se. Therefore, even though there appears tobe suttas, MN22 and MN74, mentioning that some practitionersattain enlightenment without the help of quietly sitting meditation, it doesnot exclude that the practitioner's mind has to concentrate enough to bring outthe powerful insight to penetrate into the true nature of the phenomenalworld. Moreover, the mentalprocess which leads to the realization is vipassanā meditation,a practice employed to cultivate and bring the powerful insight rather thanintellectual speculation and analysis. In this case, saying that through vipassanā meditation one attains enlightenment unsupported by jhānameditation is only true when jhāna (mediation) refers to the four stages ofclam but it is not true when the jhāna refers to its general meaning ofmeditation or concentration. Alsoit is not true to assume that the liberation is simply brought out by theintellectual and rational thinking.

5. Conclusion

As we mentioned at the outset,there are some controversial issues in practising vipassanā and samatha. After examining the Pāli suttas, theVisuddhimagga and the teachings of some vipassanā masters,some findings could be suggested:

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brought out by meditation. Thus, it is not true to presume that the mental activities which leadsto realization can be a pure form of intellectual activity and require no helpat all of either samatha or vipassanāmeditation.

Bibliography

Abbreviations for names if texts ( published by the Pali Texts Society)

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King, W. (1980), TheravādaMeditation: The Buddhist Transformation of Yoga. University Park: ThePennsylvania State University Press.

Ñāṇamoli (tr.)(1975), The Path of Purification (Visuddhimagga). Kendy: Buddhist Publication Society.

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Ñāṇamoli (tr.)(1982), The Path of Discrimination (Paṭisambhidāmagga). London: The Pali Text Society.

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Vetter, T. (1988), The Ideas and Meditative Practices of Early Buddhism. Leiden: E.J. Brill.

Walshe, M. (tr.)1987, Thus Have I Heard: The Long Discourses of the Buddha (Dīgha Nikāya). London: Wisdom Publications.

Woodward, F.(tr.)(1980), The Book of the KindredSayings (Saṃyuta-Nikāya) Vol. II. London: The Pali Text Society.

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從上座部佛教的觀點探討毗婆奢那（內觀）禪法

提要

就修學證道的觀點而言，毗婆奢那（內觀）的禪修法和奢摩他（止）的禪修法，有否必然的關係呢？行者是否可以不靠這兩種禪法，單以理性思考、辯證和分析推理的方式，除去所有的煩惱而證得涅槃呢？本文就是從南傳佛教的觀點來探討上述的問題。

由於這些問題涉及到 vipassanā 及 vipassanā bhāvanā（毗婆奢那禪修／內觀禪修）等內涵，本文將先探討這些用語所談的本質、特色及具體修法。接著，才探討毗婆奢那禪修法和奢摩他的禪修法間的關係。

本文所採用的方式不只是從文字、經典的角度來看這些問題，也從實修的觀點來探討這些問題。因此，本文所用的資料，除了南傳的四部尼柯耶等經典外，也參考《清淨道論》、南傳《解脫道論》以及近代南傳修學有成的幾位禪師的觀點。

關鍵詞：1.毗婆奢那（內觀）　2.毗婆奢那禪修法（內觀禪修法）　3.奢摩他　4.關係　5.理性思考

[1] Ñāṇamoli andBodhi 1995:38.

[2] King 1980:82ff.

[3] Gethin1998:198-201.

[4] Gombrich1996:96-134.　In this article, although the main issue is paññā rather than vipassanā, the author made it clear in thefootnote that “paññā and vipassanā have the same basicmeaning but as technical terms are used in different contexts.”(Cf. Ibid., p. 113, no. 10)

[5] Vetter 1988:63ff.

[6] Gombrich 1996:97ff.

[7] A text of KhūddākaNikāya.

[8] There is anambiguity of whether one can say if Gombrich accepts this non-meditationpractice.　Although he attempted to prove that there are two Pāli suttasmentioning that one can attain liberation without meditation, he argued that itis an alteration by the sutta’s compiler.　CF. Gombrich1996: 97ff.

[9] Gethin alsoobserves that this confusion may bear some relation to the tension betweenforest monks and town-dwelling monk.　Yet he didnot explain his assumption in his book.　Since so farthe author can not find more information to clarify this issue, the essay willnot take it into account.　 CF. Gethin 1998:200.

[10] For a summary ofPoussin’s position on this question, see Gombrich (1996), pp. 133~134.

[11] Vetter 1988: 63.

[12] The translationsemployed by them are wisdom (Conze), contemplation (Poussin) and insight(Gombrich).　CF. Conze 1972:17; Gombrich 1996:113 note, and p. 134.

[13] Gombrich 1996:113.

[14] Ibid., p. 134.

[15] Ibid., p. 113.

[16] MN22=AlagaddūitakkhamSutta (Trenckner 1979:130-142);

MN74 =Dīghanakha Sutta Ibid., pp. 479~501).

[17] The essential practiceof vipassanā meditation is thecontemplation of impermanence (anicca),suffering (dukkha) and non-self(anattā. Cf: King 1980: 93~94.

[18] Vetter 1988:37-41.

[19] Rhys Davids and Stede1986:627.

[20] Paravahera Vajirañāṇa 1962: 22.

[21] Conze 1972:22.

[22] The Buddhist Dictionary, p. 177.

[23] SN XLV vol.5 p. 52, Agantukā.　(Pālitext); Woodward 1979:51-52 (English translation).

[24] MN 73= Mahāvacchagotta Sutta.　Trenckner 1979:494; Ñāṇamoli and Bodhi 1995:600

[25] Bhāvatabbā is agerundive and refers to something“should be cultivated”.　Bhāvehi is an imperative which means cultivate of develop.　 Bhāvitā is apass participle and means “was developed”.

[26] Such as SN XLV vol.5 p. 52, Agantukā; MN73,Mahāvacchagotta Sutta. etc.

[27] Ibid., pp. 25~26.

[28] Vajirañāṇa 1962.

[29] Vajirañāṇa 1962, 26~27.

[30] Rhys Davids and Stede1986:64.

[31] Ibid., pp. 282~283.

[32] Rhys Davids and Stede1986: 64.

[33] SN, vol.4, p. 360 Vitakka ; Woodward 1980:256-257.

[34] ANI, Balavaggo, Warder1961:61; Woodward 1982: 55-56.

[35] In terms of Buddhistdoctrine, the ignorance is the root of saṃsāra.　 Once theignorance is uprooted, the practitioner can be liberated from rebirth.

[36] Ñāṇamoli1975:479-480.

[37] Paṭisambhidāmagga I, p. 39; Ñāṇamoli 1982:22.

[38] The sutta says: In that case, Vaccha, develop further two things:serenity and insight.　When these two things are developedfurther, they will lead to the penetration of many elements.　CF. Ñāṇamoli and Bodhi1995:600.　Another sutta goes on narrating the context of penetration.　 It runs: (Insight Knowledge) Again, Udāyin, I have proclaimed to mydisciples the way to understand thus: This body of mine, made of material form,consisting of the four great elements, procreated by a mother and father, andbuilt up out of boiled rice and porridge, is subject to impermanence, to beingworn and rubbed away, to dissolution and disintegration, and this consciousnessof mine is supported by it and bound up with it. (MN 77 Mahāsakulūdāyī Sutta; Ñāṇamoli and Bodhi 1995:642~643)

[39] TheEighteen principal Insights are contemplation of impermanence, suffering,non-self, aversion, detachment, extinction, abandoning, waning, vanishing,change, unconditioned, desirelessness, emptiness, higher wisdom aboutphenomena, knowledge and vision according to reality, misery, turning-away andreflecting contemplation. ( Paṭisambhidāmagga I, p. 39) CF. Ñāṇamoli 1982:22.

[40] Bucknelland Kang 1997:98.

[41] Ibid., p. 108.

[42] Woodward 1980:201-203.

[43] The PiṇdapātapārisuddhīSutta says : ……by reviewing, he knows thus:“Serenity and insight are developed in me,” then he can abide happy and glad,training day and night in wholesome states.　CF. MN 151.; Ñāṇamoli and Bodhii 1995:1145.

[44] Thesutta runs : he becomes dispassionate, he does not delight; he causes greed tofade away, he does not inflame it; he causes cessation, not arising; herelinquishes, he does not grasp. (Paṭisambhidāmagga I 295-297; Ñāṇamoli 1982:59).

[45] CF.MN 8, Sallekha Sutta; Bucknell and Kang 1997:29.

[46] “How manykinds of equanimity about formations (sankharārūpeti)arise through insight (vipassanā)? Ten kinds of equanimity about formations through insight…… Understandingof reflex ion on arising, occurrence, the sign, accumulation, rebirth-linking,destination, generation, re-arising, birth, aging, sickness, death, sorrow,lamentation, despair, and of composure, for the purpose of attaining thestream-entry path, is knowledge of equanimity about formations……” CF. Paṭisambhidāmagga I 325, 327; Ñāṇamoli 1982:65.

[47] The forty aspects areconcerned with the five aggregates.　They are:impermanent, painful, as a disease, a boil, a dart, a calamity, and affliction,as alien, as disintegrating, as a plague, a disaster, a terror, a menace, asfickle, perishable, unenduring, as no protection, no shelter, no refuge, asempty, vain, void, not-self, as a danger, as subject to change, as having nocore, as the root of calamity, as murderous, as due to be annihilated, assubject to cankers, as formed, as Mara’s bait, as connected with the idea ofbirth, connected with the idea of ageing, connected with the idea of illness,connected with the idea of death, connected with the idea of sorrow, connectedwith the idea of lamentation, connected with the idea of despair, connectedwith the idea of defilement.　CF. Paṭisambhidāmagga; Ñāṇamoli 1982:402-403.

[48] Paṭisambhidāmagga II238; Ñāṇamoli 1982:402-403.

[49] We put thequalification of first jhanā here not only because the features ofthe practitioner who possesses vipassanā similar to this state, but alsobecause we found in Paṭisambhidāmagga that serenity comes firstthen vipassanā.　CF. Paṭisambhidāmagga.