ÉÍÍÍÍÍÍÍÍÍÍÍÍÍÍÍÍÍÍÍÍÍÍÍÍÍÍÍÍÍÍÍÍÍÍÍÍÍÍÍÍÍÍÍÍÍÍÍÍÍÍÍÍÍÍÍÍÍÍÍÍÍÍÍÍÍÍÍÍÍÍÍÍÍ» º º º * BuddhaNet BBS * Buddha Dhamma Meditation Assoc. º º The Buddhist Bulletin Board PO Box K1020 Haymarket NSW 2000 º º +612 212-3061 Online: 24hrs Telephone: +612 212-3071 º º º ÈÍÍÍÍÍÍÍÍÍÍÍÍÍÍÍÍÍÍÍÍÍÍÍÍÍÍÍÍÍÍÍÍÍÍÍÍÍÍÍÍÍÍÍÍÍÍÍÍÍÍÍÍÍÍÍÍÍÍÍÍÍÍÍÍÍÍÍÍÍÍÍÍͼ THE INDIVIDUAL AND SOCIAL DIMENSION OF SALVATION IN BUDDHISM Ven. Professor Dhammavihari Salvation is defined in the Shorter Oxford Dictionary as the saving of the soul, the deliverance from sin, and admission to eternal bliss, wrought for man by the atonement of Christ. Even after one has made allowance for the essentially Christian ring in these words, the definition will provide a basis to the Buddhist for a broad-based analysis of the concept of salvation in his own religion. As far as the Buddhists are concerned, their own concept of release or moksa in Nirvana which is their equivalent to salvation shares some of the views expressed in this definition. Let us begin with the idea of the saving of the soul. Conceding the possible controversy between the Christians and the Buddhists over the concept of soul, yet there must necessarily be agreement in the acceptance in both religions of distinctness and identity of persons or individuals, with moral and social responsibilities, as they go through life in the world. Whatever religious or philosophical explanation they offer for the circumstances which man faces in life, pleasant or unpleasant, this experience, inspite of many areas of commonness, also carves out an impress of distinct identity for each individual. Therefore, to the Buddhist as much as to the Christian, in consideration of his own value-system, the liberation of this individual is of supreme importance. The antithesis here, when we speak of liberation may be between human and super-human, mortal and immortal. At the level of everyday experience, it is admitted, all is not well in the world. There has to be a transcendence, a rising above or a getting beyond this state of affairs of the mundane world. The Buddhist looks upon life in the world as not being totally satisfactory. Both areas of life of man, the psycho- and the physical, suffer on account of this deficiency. Some part of it, particularly the physical, like decay, disease and death, is natural and hereditary by virtue of our being caught up in the recurring life process or samsƒra. Psychopathic disturbances, on the other hand, like greed, hatred and jealousy, are products of maladjustment and miscalculation by man, through ignorance and deception (avidyƒ and moha). The totality of this unsatisfactory nature of life is what is termed in Buddhism as dukkha and the Buddhist, in his highest and perfect religious pursuit, seeks salvation therefrom (na vo dukkhƒ pamutti attthi Ud.51; dukkhƒ atthi pamocanam S.I.62; dukkhassa nissaranam pa¤¤ƒyissati S.II.10). From loka or lokiya, the world or the worldly, he seeks transcendence to the lokuttara which shares not of the nature of the world. Whether such transcendence results in a perpetual state of factual existence, to the extent of being real in terms of time and space, or it is only a logical assumption in contrast to what is being rejected, is to be examined in detail elsewhere. At any rate, we may here safely conclude that the Buddhist therefore has no problem in his own religious context in subscribing to the general definition of salvation as `the saving of the soul', which to him would mean no more and no less than the liberation or emancipation of the individual being from the `turmoil of the life process' or samsƒra in which he is caught up. Coming next to the idea of `the deliverance from sin,' it has already been indicated that the Buddhist seeks deliverance from the unsatisfactory nature of the world which, more precisely speaking, pertains to the life of man than to the physical world outside. It is man's submission to this conflict which is termed dukkha. In fact, the Buddha himself declares that his entire mission consists of clarifying the real nature of this unsatisfactory position of man in the world which is essentially the connotation of the term dukkha and of prescribing for the termination of this dukkha referred to as nirodha (Pubbe c'ƒham bhikkhave etarahi ca dukkha¤c'eva pa¤¤ƒpemi dukkhassa ca nirodham. M.I.140). From the point of view of the Buddhist, man is in this plight through his own seeking, or rather because of his non-seeking of a release therefrom. It is this seeking of what is antithetical to the mundane that liberates the bodhisatta [Siddhƒrtha Gautama] in his attainment of Buddhahood, and elevates him from man to super-man. Subject to birth, disease and death, he seeks release from them. In the Buddhist sense, this release or salvation from what is characteristic of human and worldly existence, converges on the transcendental here in this very existence. The word transcendental has certainly to be conceded to the Buddhist, together with the right to determine what it connotes. Since this state does not gravitate towards the earthly and is thus not moored to it, it is very precisely described in Buddhism as a state untraceable here and therefore much less in a world beyond. Much confusion with regard to Buddhism, particularly with regard to Nirvana which is its ultimate goal has arisen out of this inability to view it in terms of Buddhist values. It is as a result of the discriminative consciousness of man which is referred to as vi¤¤ƒna getting loaded with too many mundane or worldly leanings that the life process both here and now as well as in the future existences to come gets charged with vitality or produces the life continuum which the Buddhists refer to as bhava or becoming. It is this process which renders the individual being in time-space dimension. Hence in the formula of Causal Genesis or Paticcasamuppƒda (Sk. pratŒtyasamutpƒda) we find the statement bhavapaccayƒ jƒti which means `becoming produces birth.' The very traceability of the individual is on account of this density and opacity which his consciousness acquires in the process. Consequently it is possible to point out and say that his mind has these propensities, that it leans on this or that (idam nissitam v¤¤ƒnan'ti). It is the very fuel on which life, with all its manifestations, glows. On the other hand, the scope of salvation in Buddhism is to bring about a de-conditioning of the mind or an ultimate reduction of the activity of the discriminative consciousness. Hence in Nirvana the process of this fuel generation ceases and the very basis of becoming (bhava), and not of the being, is totally destroyed. For Nirvana in Buddhism neither equates with nor is dependent on physical death. In consequence of this, an inquiry with regard to what happens to a being who has attained Nirvana, after his death, in relation to the process of becoming this or that, is an unwarranted question. A predication with regard to his identity even in this very life is an untenable position. His mind being totally de-conditioned and being completely free from leanings of any sort, no identity whatsoever can be established of him, now or for the future. Samsƒra-wise (i.e. life-process wise) he has ceased to be. This position with regard to the emancipated being, the one who has attained the state of Nirvana is clearly enunciated in the Buddhist texts. It stands well defended as the logical outcome of Buddhist thinking. The Alagadd–pama Sutta of the Majjhima Nikaya (M.I.p.140) expresses this very clearly. Its importance as a vital piece of information for the correct understanding of the scope of salvation in Buddhism, eschatologically, cannot be overrated. But lamentably, the Pali Text Society translation of this passage has completely missed this point and produced in its place something which does not consistently fit into the logic of the Buddhist theory of salvation. For the purpose of clarification, the original text in Pali together with the P.T.S translation and the suggested new rendering is added here. Evam vimuttacittam kho bhikkhave bhikkhum sa-Indƒ devƒ sa-Brahmakƒ sa-Pajƒpatikƒ anvesam nƒdhigacchanti - idam nissitam tathƒgatassa vi¤¤ƒnan'ti. Tam kissa hetu. Ditthevƒham bhikkhave dhamme tathƒgatam ananuvejjo ti vadƒmi (M.I.p.140). P.T.S. Translation : Monks, when a monk's mind is freed thus, the devas with Indra, Brahma and Pajƒpati, do not succeed in their search if they think : `This is the discriminative consciousness attached to a Tathƒgata.' What is the reason for this ? I, monks, say here and now that a Tathƒgata is untraceable. Suggested translation : Monks, devas with Indra, Brahma and Prajƒpati, tracking down a monk whose mind is freed, i.e. a monk who is emancipated, would not discover the discriminative consciousness of such a one (Tathƒgata) to be leaning on this or that (idam nissitam.) What is the reason for this ? I, monks, say that a Tathƒgata is untraceable even in this very life. This same curiosity to track down the consciousness of the emancipated being after his death, is recorded in the story of Godhika in the Samyutta Nikaya (S.I.p.122). The Buddha declares that Godhika having attained the state of Nirvana passed away with a consciousness that finds no foothold : appatitthitena ca bhikkhave vi¤¤ƒnena godhiko kulaputto parinibbuto. As against this, the goal in terms of Christian concepts is given as `admission to eternal bliss.' Here again, concept-wise and vocabulary-wise, the Buddhists would appear to be somewhat different from the Christians. Considering the fleeting and transitory nature of worldly phenomena which is consequently labeled as unsatisfactory, transcendence from it must logically bring about its antithesis, namely a non-transitory nature. But the bliss of Nirvana in Buddhism consists primarily of this elimination of transitoriness. Thus Nirvana is described as being non-birth (ajƒta), non-decay (ajara) and non-death (amata), i.e. free from features which are characteristic of samsƒra or the round of worldly existence. To be in this mortal frame of man and be assured that there would be no more subjection to these travails is truly the bliss of Nirvana. Even where they manifest themselves in the life of a liberated disciple during the remaining days of his life, it is as though they matter not to him any more and count for nothing in his life. That is why it is possible for him to say, with calm and composure-`I yearn not for life, I long not for death.' This was said by none other than the great disciple Sariputta (See Theragatha vv.1002-3). In this state one sees the consummation of the religious life in Buddhism. A liberated Buddhist disciple is a jŒvan mukta in the true sense of the word. His release is not eschatological. This alone, and not more nor less, is true Buddhist salvation. It is the transcendence of the true Buddhist disciple. The Buddhists have not the need like their fellow-religionists in Jainism, Sankhya, Yoga and Vedanta, to think of a videha mukti beyond this, to be looked upon as final liberation. At this stage one is compelled to observe that it would be difficult to find in Buddhism, with regard to the notion of salvation, a parallel to the above mentioned Christian idea of `admission to eternal bliss.' In this context one cannot afford to lose sight of the basic divergences in the definition of life, the explanation of its origin and its ultimate goal in the two systems. To insist on a uniformity here is far from desirable and to assume the existence of such a uniformity is far from the truth. One has to point out that even the assumed relationship of the liberated tathƒgata in Buddhism with the Absolute in the Upanishads is only a forced one. Of the many words used to refer to the state of Nirvana, amata or non-death or deathless is the direct outcome of the earlier concept of ajƒta or non-birth. Primarily Nirvana is the state which signifies the cessation of the process of being born again. Some of the Pali phrases which signify this are khŒnƒ jƒti [birth is terminated] and nƒparam itthattƒyƒti pajƒnƒti [comprehends that there is no more of being such and such] as at M.I.138. Thus the idea of deathless as an attribute of Nirvana is a derivative and negative concept, coming in the wake of 'no more rebirth'. Reference to Nirvana as `the realm of the Eternal', while one appears to be making use of Pali sources belonging to the Theravada tradition, has to be judged as a gross distortion (The God of Buddha by Jamshed Fozdar pp.23,24). Lastly, let us take note of the crowning phrase of the more or less Christian definition of salvation viz. `wrought for man by the atonement of Christ.' The approximating likeness of this concept in Buddhism is seen in the Bodhisattva doctrine of the Mahayanic schools where the magnanimity of the saviour in the person of the bodhisattva works out the moral, social and spiritual emancipation of man. Acts of sacrifice and surrender of what is personally beneficial in the interests of the multitude marks out the bodhisattva as one who is dedicated to work for the salvation of suffering humanity. Texts like the SukhƒvatŒvy–ha S–tra and the SaddharmapundarŒka S–tra (Ch.24 entitled Samantamukhaparivarta) deal with this role of the bodhisattva in great detail. It is on such a religio-philosophical basis as described so far that the Buddhists structure their salvation machinery. The goal of their salvation is Nirvana which is the complete cessation of the worldly life process as it is discernible to man (compare such uses in Pali as `acchijji vattam : terminated the process of revolving in samsara' and `chinnam vattam na vattati : the wheel is destroyed, it rolls not again' at Ud.p.75. Note the imagery of the wheel rolling on. Also `ettƒvatƒ vattam vattati itthattam pa¤¤ƒpanƒya : So long will the wheel roll on establishing a state of thusness' at D.II.63f. It is this process of the wheel of life rolling on which is termed samsara, and stands in marked contrast to Nirvana which is the cessation of that process. The travails thereof are known as dukkha and transcendence or release from them is what is implied by the term moksa. In Buddhism, the discovery of both the malady as well as the remedy for it was made by the Buddha himself at a human level of analysis and inference and through a diligent application to the perfection of wisdom via a process of personal self-culture and self-development. This is why the Buddha ultimately declared that as far as salvation is concerned man is without the external refuge of a Divine Being (attƒno loko anabhissaro M.II.68). Another very popular Pali term used for the concept of salvation in Buddhism is vimutti (Sk. vimukti) which also etymologically means release. Having looked upon this release from the trumoil of life or the cessation thereof as the real salvation of man, the Buddha in his profound but simple thesis of the Four Noble Truths, prescribed in his Truth of the Way or magga sacca a path leading to its attainment. It is the path that leads man from grief to happiness, from death to immortality, from worldliness to transcendence. In the process of winning this salvation according to the tradition of Theravada Buddhism the role or the Buddha begins and ends at the level of indicating what this path is. The Buddha is in fact called the proclaimer of the way, hitherto undeclared : anakkhƒtassa maggassa akkhƒtƒ (M.III.8). The striving for the successful attainment of it is entirely the work of each individual. `Each individual must make an effort by himself. The Buddhas only indicate the way : `Tumhehi kiccam ƒtappam akkhƒtƒro tathƒgatƒ (Dhammapada.v.276). In marked contrast to the salvation process in most theistic religions which invoke qualities of heart like faith and devotion (sraddhƒ and bhakti), the Buddhists stress on the role of the individual towards this same attainment which requires the development of the human personality in a different direction. First and foremost, it requires initiative and effort, the first steps in putting oneself on gear, as it were. This attempt at making a sustained effort or application of viriya (viriyam ƒrabhati) is in fact, one of the ten perfections (viriya pƒramŒ) which in the tradition of the Theravada a bodhisattva is required to develop towards the attainment of his Buddhahood. Of this too, the initiative or getting into stride (arabbha dhƒtu) comes to be specially commented upon as a vigorous and vital aspect of personality. This, together with resolve or determination (adhitthƒna) which is another of the ten perfections, invokes the qualities of the heart with a different stress. Development of the Buddhist path to salvation on the other hand is predominantly weighted on the side of qualities of the head. Decisive mental alertness (sati or Skt. smrti) is an early requirement for the development of a meaningful concentration (samƒdhi) of mind. All these are invariably found to be prerequisites for the acquisition of the very vital tool for the salvation process, which is none other than the penetrative wisdom or pa¤¤ƒ (Skt. praj¤ƒ) which is the crown jewel of Buddhist salvation yet serving only as a means to an end and not an end in itself. As far as the Buddhist concept of salvation is concerned, it is to be observed that this transcendence from the world is the result of comprehending the true nature of the world and consequently of coming to proper relations with it. The forces that bind man to it, in rather inevitably painful ways, are to be personally comprehended in order to be able to reduce their gravitation towards the earthly. This involves both an individual and inward adjustment as well as adjustments with social implications. There is no denying the fact that the former is more basic and primary while the social implications are more derivative. While this is necessarily so, it does not reduce the ethical richness of the religious system. Starting with the religiously primary consideration of self-adjustment with the goal of salvation in mind, we have to focus attention on two major items which relate to this. The degree of involvement of man in the affairs of the world being the basic core of the phenomenon of his unhappiness in life or dukkha, the remedial measures towards its elimination or reduction require that man studies, in the first instance, the reason for this involvement. At the same time he has also to investigate and find out for himself why this involvement brings about unhappiness. This latter leads to an exhaustive analysis of the true nature of the world or worldly phenomena. It would be profitable at this stage to indicate that as far as the early phase of Buddhism known as the Theravada is concerned the search for reality is no more than the desire to comprehend the real and true nature (yathabhucca) of the world in which we are and with which we are constantly in communication. It is to be categorically stated that this is not a search for a Reality beyond this life or beyond this world. Nor does the attempt of the Buddhist to grasp the real and true nature of the world lead to the assumption, as with some of the other Indian philosophies, that the empirical world is no more than mƒyƒ or a mind-made illusion. The world does exist on its own tempo. In the Buddhist analysis and scrutiny it becomes evident that the world, including man therein, is essentially subject to the law of change (viparinƒmadhamma). Known also as the law of impermanence or anicca, this basic character necessarily generates in the mind of the worlding states of conflict, tension and frustration, on account of his own inability to cope with these changes which, though by no means welcome are characteristic of the world in which he lives. Of the three signata or characteristics which mark the life of man in the world, it is this changing, transitory nature, its anicca characteristic which in its wake brings along the other two, namely unsatisfactoriness or dukkha and substancelessness or anatta (soullessness). Such a world view or an awareness of the true characteristics of the world must put the Buddhist disciple who is endowed with a degree of self-awareness in a position of guarded activity. The over-enlargement of the ego with an associated assertion of I and mine has then necessarily to be kept at a minimum. Speaking in Buddhist terms, derivative notions of greed and hatred (lobha and dosa) which start spiraling around the assertion of I and mine, are set in motion by likes and dislikes (piya and appiya), in terms of man's desire to possess or reject (abhijjhƒ and vyƒpƒda). A true Buddhist disciple is called upon to start his religious life with a regulation of this process. The impact of this psycho-ethical correction in ultimate terms of salvation, is comparable to the two sides of a coin. The result of this ethical correction is concurrently active in the two areas, individual and social. A disciple who is in quest of his salvation is thus seen to be gradually working towards the reduction and eradication of these pernicious traits of mind, namely greed and hatred. In their place, there develops in the mind of the disciple love and charity, a desire to give and share instead of a greed to selfishly possess as well as a desire to love, tolerate and accommodate rather than hate, reject and repel. Salvation-wise, these virtues are individually elevating and ennobling, and socially exhilarating and leading to productive growth. They form the very bases from which a man's right to his life and property comes to be vindicated. The survey which I have just concluded was undertaken with a view to indicate the intellectual basis on which the Buddhist formula of salvation operates. However, it is to be appreciated that the socio-intellectual changes which come upon the individual at this stage are, from the point of view of the Buddhist, absolved from the charge of `being purely theoretical'. With the Buddhists, all activities have their origin at the level of the mind (Manopubbangamƒ dhammƒ Dhp.1). Correctness or otherwise, propriety or impropriety, of all action committed by man is determined in terms of the intellectual activity, or in other words, decision making undertaken by the doer (manasƒ ce pasannena.....manasƒ ce padutthena bhƒsati vƒ karoti vƒ Dhp.1 & 2). Even before an act is rendered in physical terms through word or deed, it already registers at the mind level its impact on the doer. Human activity lends itself to evaluation with greater ease at the level of physical expression. Their social desirability or viciousness is felt unmistakably at this level. In Buddhism, this gauging of human activity is attempted from both ends. In the Ambalatthika Rƒhulovƒda Sutta of the Majjhima Nikaya, the Buddha in his admonitions to Rahula, uses the yardstick of results of action to determine their approvability. `That which is detrimental to one's own well-being, or to the well-being of the other or of both, should unhesitatingly be given up as being bad', says the Buddha (See MLS.II.89f). In counselling the Kalamas. on the other hand. the Buddha advises them to determine the nature of their motivation to activity (as having its origin in greed, hatred or delusion) and to regulate their activity to be of non-pernicious motivation, free from greed, hatred and delusion. It would now be easy to indicate and clarify that the Buddhist way to salvation is founded on this theoretical basis and on this intellectual analysis. The Buddha who was concerned with the unsatisfactoriness ( or dukkha) of the world in which man was caught up and for which he was earnestly searching a way out, until he himself attained the stage of enlightenment or Buddhahood, thus transcending this worldliness, and prescribed a way (magga or patipadƒ) for the salvation of man. This is the fourth of the Four Noble Truths propounded by the Buddha. Designated as the Noble Eightfold Path (ariya atthangika magga) it covers a very vast expanse of human development, both individual and social. It starts with a basic intellectual grasp of the human situation, upholding that such a corrected vision about life alone could regulate it, harnessing its resources for its own redemption. This is termed sammƒ ditthi or corrected vision, man's vision about life and the world. Working with an efficient intellectual quantum, provided both from within and without (parato ca ghoso yoniso ca manasikƒro M.I.294) man is able judge for himself the ill-effects of his own actions. First and foremost, he learns to cultivate the Buddhist attitude to life, the non-permissibility of a staggering ego (sakkƒyaditthi), a position which is most desirable salvation- wise, to the individual. Psychologically, this elimination of the basis of individuation or personal assertion, brings in a whole series of changes in social values. This brings in a direct relationship of man to man in terms of friendship, totally non-discriminative. This is maitrŒ or loving kindness. This universal love which is the result of the obliteration of the ego is not restricted even by considerations of human and animal. Life in the universe, both great and small, comes within its range. So does friend and foe, those near and far, those seen and unseen (Ye keci pƒnabh£tatthi tasƒ vƒ thƒvarƒ vƒ anavasesƒ dŒhgƒ vƒ ye mahantƒ vƒ majjhimƒrassakƒnukath–lƒ ditthƒ vƒ ye va additthƒ ye ca d–re vasanti avid–re bh–tƒ vƒ sambhavesŒ vƒ sabbe sattƒ bhavantu sukhitattƒ. Sn.vv.164-7) Consequent to this corrected (sammƒ) vision about life, everything else that follows in the noble eightfold way necessarily acquire the tone of correctness. Thoughts which spring from such a basis are invariably wholesome thoughts (sammƒ sankappa :item no 2). As these manifest themselves in action they give rise to inoffensive, fruitful speech (sammƒ vƒcƒ :item no 3) and justifiable forms of activity (sammƒ kammanta : item no 4). Up to this stage, while the individual is being cultured in terms of his thought, word and deed, society is at the same tine benefiting from the non-corrosiveness of individual action. This being the graduation of the individual on the path of salvation as we have already indicated above, we witness a twofold benefit in two distinct spheres. While gradual spiritual ascendance on the path of salvation is assured to the individual on the one hand, we also find him fitting himself to life in the world with great ease and with even greater harmony. Conflict and tension as far as each individual is concerned, thereby necessarily step out of the way. On the other hand, society is not harassed by erring individuals. The composition of society would witness a greater percentage of such persons of corrected vision and regulated action. Item no 5 of this code for salvation, namely sammƒ ƒjiva or corrected livelihood grooms the life style of an individual in society in such a way as to make society completely safe for living. The term ƒjiva implies the means whereby one makes a living. At the minimum, man must find the food and clothing for himself and his dependents. But he must earn his bread, himself. But this wherewithal for living which in Buddhist contexts is referred to as bhoga has to be acquired by just and fair means : dhammikehi dhammaladdhehi bhogehi (A.II.67). One has to toil for it (bƒhƒ balaparicitehi. ibid.) and earn it with the sweat of one's brow (sedƒvakkhittehi. ibid.). Thus in terms of Buddhist values, while it is accepted that life is dear to every one (sabbesam jŒvitam piyam : Dhp.v.130), it has to be nurtured and kept going by fair and honourable means. These social safeguards, built into the Buddhist scheme of salvation, enhances its relevance in a highly competitive commercialized society, where money values and material turnover, and those alone, seem to topple down other considerations. Viewing the Buddhist concept of salvation from yet another angle, we find the process leading to it built upon three ascending terraces. This is referred to as the training via the threefold-culture or tisso sikkhƒ. Here too, in the final ascent is perfection of wisdom or attainment of undistorted vision about oneself. In the Eightfold way discussed earlier the perfection of right concentration (sammƒ samƒdhi or item no. 8) brings about perfected wisdom or sammƒ ¤ƒna. This is what precedes salvation or release (vimutti). The threefold culture of sikkhƒ too, has wisdom (pa¤¤ƒ) as its final state preceding release (sammƒ ¤ƒnassa sammƒ vimutti pahoti. D.II.217). While the second stage of this training geared towards salvation, isolates the individual, more or less, to a transcendent plane, from his involvement with the mundane, its basis or sŒla deals essentially with the correction of man in relation to the social environment. This, in other words, is no doubt the moral uplift of man. As far as this code of sŒla is concerned, there is a difference in scope and content between that of monk and layman. Geared towards the attainment of the goal of salvation, worked out through a gradual process of up-lifting, a Buddhist disciple rids himself of obnoxious patterns of behaviour through word and deed and cultivates positive traits of character which contribute to the healthy growth of social harmony and concord. The Buddhist charter for this is the `code of five precepts' or pa¤casŒla. Abstaining from the destruction of life both human and animal, he develops boundless love for all life, working for their weal and welfare. This indeed is the first moral precept of the Buddhist layman. Abstaining from stealing, he cultivates the manifold aspects of honesty, preventing the alienation of any one from his legitimate possessions. A special precept safeguards the privacy of his domestic life, the safety and security of the females of his household. Honesty of word and deed is guaranteed and safeguarded by the fourth precept relating to speech. This protects and upholds societal interconnectedness founded on honesty and trustworthiness. Finally, there is included the fifth precept of abstinence from drugs and alcoholic drinks for the sake of greater sanity and sound judgement among men. Thus, it may be said that from whatever angle one looks upon the Buddhist path to salvation, it becomes abundantly clear that it is geared towards and invariably results in character formation or reformation of character which the Buddhists refer to as a `developed or cultured self' (bhƒvitatta). The real standing of such a person is indeed both within the society and outside it, with its individual and social dimensions. Ven Professor Dhammavihari Vajira¤ƒna Dharmƒyatanaya Maharagama, Sri Lanka