HANDBOOK FOR MANKIND
by
Buddhadasa Bhikkhu
translated from the Thai
by
Ariyananda Bhikkhu (Roderick S. Bucknell)
For more information:
Dhammadana Foundation
c/o Suan Mokh
Chaiya
Surat Thani 84110
Thailand
* * * * * * * *
First electronic edition: December 1996
Scanning & Proofreading: John Gebhardt <gebhardt@well.com>
This electronic edition is offered
FOR FREE DISTRIBUTION ONLY
by arrangement with the Dhammadana Foundation.
This text is a gift of Dhamma. You may print this file for your
personal use, and you may make and distribute unaltered copies
of this file, provided that you charge no fees of any kind for
its distribution. Otherwise, all rights reserved.
* * * * * * * *
FOREWORD
In 1956, the Venerable Buddhadasa Bhikkhu gave a series
of lectures to a group of prospective judges, which were
subsequently edited and arranged into what became The
Handbook for Mankind.
Since then, the success of this small book has been astounding. Well
over 100,000 copies have been printed in Thai, and the book still
enjoys widespread popularity, more than three decades after the
original talks. The reason for the "Handbook's" duration is clear: that
the Venerable Buddhadasa offers fresh insights into a timeless
Truth (Dhamma), in the direct and simple manner that characterizes
all his teaching. The clarity of his insight brings the Dhamma to life,
so that today, a new generation of readers, not yet born at the time
of these talks, can find meaning in his words.
As a guide for newcomers to the Buddha-Dhamma (the Truth
which the Buddha awakened to and subsequently taught), this book
is an invaluable guide. In it are contained the essential teachings of
Buddhism. The "Handbook" is especially useful for those who
approach the Buddha's teaching, not as a subject for scholarly
study, buy as a means to understand and ennoble their lives.
The Handbook for Mankind was originally published in English
by the Sublime Life Mission, buy has long been out of print. With
their permission, we have reprinted this book, making some
corrections where necessary, buy leaving the text otherwise intact.
Our thanks are due to Mr. Pun Chongprasoed, who first put this book
together in Thai, and to all the people whose effort has made
possible the reprinting of this book.
The Dhamma Study and Practice Group
CONTENTS
I Looking at Buddhism
II The true nature of things
III Three universal characteristics
IV Grasping and clinging
V The threefold training
VI The things we cling to
VII Insight by the nature method
VIII Insight by organized training
IX Emancipation from the world
LOOKING AT BUDDHISM
If we open any recent book on the origins of religion, we find that
there is one point on which all authors are in agreement. They all
agree in saying that religion arose in the world out of fear. Primitive
forest-dwelling man feared thunder and lightning, darkness and storms,
and various things about him that he was unable to understand or
control. His method of avoiding the danger he saw in these phenomena
was to demonstrate either humility and submission or homage and
reverence, depending on which he felt was most appropriate. Later, as
man's knowledge and understanding developed, this fear of the forces of
nature changed into a fear of phenomena more difficult to apprehend.
Religions based on deference to objects of fear such as natural
phenomena, spirits and celestial beings, came to be looked down upon as
unreasonable and ridiculous. And then man's fear became still more
refined into a fear of suffering, suffering of the sort that cannot be
alleviated by any material means. He came to fear the suffering
inherent in birth, aging, pain and death, the disappointment and
hopelessness which arise out of desire, anger and stupidity, which no
amount of power or wealth can relieve. Long ago in India, a country
well provided with thinkers and investigators, intelligent people
dispensed with all paying of homage to supernatural beings and started
seeking instead the means of conquering birth, aging, pain and death,
the means of eliminating greed, hatred and delusion. Out of this search
arose Buddhism, a higher religion based on insight, a means of
conquering birth, aging, pain and death, a method for destroying the
mental defilements. Buddhism has its origins in fear of this last kind,
just as do all religions based on intelligence The Buddha discovered
how to conquer absolutely what man fears: he discovered a practical
method, now called Buddhism for eliminating suffering.
"Buddhism" means "the Teaching of the Enlightened One." A
Buddha is an enlightened individual, one who knows the truth
about all things, one who knows just what is what, and so is
capable of behaving appropriately with respect to all things.
Buddhism is a religion based on intelligence, science and
knowledge, whose purpose is the destruction of suffering and the source
of suffering. All paying of homage to sacred objects by means of
performing rites and rituals, making offerings or praying is not Buddhism.
The Buddha rejected all this as foolish, ridiculous and unsound. He also
rejected the celestial beings, then considered by certain groups to be
the creator of things, and the deities supposed to dwell, one in each
star in the sky. Thus we find that the Buddha made such statements as
these:
"Knowledge, skill and ability are conducive to success and
benefit and are auspicious omens, good in their own right regardless
of the movements of the heavenly bodies. With the benefits gained
from these qualities, one will completely out-strip those foolish people
who just sit making their astrological calculations." And: "If the
water in rivers (such as the Ganges) could really wash away sins and
suffering, then the turtles, crabs, fish and shellfish living in those
sacred rivers ought by now to be freed of their sins and sufferings
too." And: "If a man could eliminate suffering by making offerings,
paying homage and praying, there would be no one subject to
suffering left in the world, because anyone at all can pay homage and
pray. But since people are still subject to suffering while in the very
act of making obeisances, paying homage and performing rites, this is
clearly not the way to gain liberation."
To attain liberation, we first have to examine things closely in
order to come to know and understand their true nature. Then we
have to behave in a way appropriate to that true nature. This is the
Buddhist teaching; this we must know and bear in mind. Buddhism
has nothing to do with prostrating oneself and deferring to awesome
things. It sets no store by rites and ceremonies such as making
libations of holy water, or any externals whatsoever, spirits and
celestial being included. On the contrary, it depends on reason and
insight. Buddhism does not demand conjecture or supposition; it
demands that we act in accordance with what our own insight
reveals and not take anyone else's word for anything. If someone
comes and tells us something, we must not believe him without
question. We must listen to his statement and examine it. Then if
we find it reasonable, we may accept it provisionally and set
about trying to verify it for ourselves. This is a key feature of
Buddhism, which distinguishes it sharply from other world
religions.
Now a religion is a many-sided thing. Seen from one angle it
has a certain appearance; seen from another angle, it has another.
Many people look at religion from the wrong angle, and Buddhism is
no exception. Different individuals looking at Buddhism with
different mental attitudes are bound to get different views of it.
Because each of us naturally has confidence in his own opinions, the
truth for each of us coincides with our own particular understanding
and point of view. Consequently, "the Truth" is not quite the same
thing for different people. They all penetrate questions to varying
depth by varying methods, and with varying degrees of intelligence A
person does not recognize as true, according to his own ideas of the
Truth, anything that lies beyond his own intelligence, knowledge and
understanding. And even though he may outwardly go along with
other people's ideas as to what is the truth, he knows in himself
that it is not the truth as he himself sees it. Each person's
conception of the truth may change and develop with the day by day
increase in his degree of intelligence, knowledge and understanding,
until such time as he arrives at the ultimate truth; and each of us has
different ways of examining and testing before believing. So if Buddhism is
viewed with differing degrees of intelligence, differing pictures of
it will be seen, simply because it can be viewed from an aspect.
As we have said, Buddhism is a practical method for liberating
oneself from suffering by means of coming to realize as did the
Buddha himself, the true nature of things. Now any religious text is
bound to contain material which later people have found occasion to
add to, and our Tipitaka is no exception. People in later ages have
added sections based on then current ideas, either in order to boost
people's confidence or out of excessive religious zeal. Regrettably
even the rites and rituals which have developed and become mixed
in with the religion are now accepted and recognized as Buddhism
proper. Ceremonies, such as setting up trays of sweets and fruit
as offerings to the "soul" of the Buddha in the same way as alms
food is offered to a monk just do not fit in with Buddhist
principles. Yet some groups consider this to be genuine Buddhist
practice, teaching it as such and keeping to it very strictly.
Rites and ceremonies of this kind have become so numerous
that they now completely obscure the real Buddhism and its
original purpose. Take for example the procedure of becoming
ordained a monk. There has come into existence the ceremony of
making gifts to the newly ordained bhikkhu Guests are invited to
bring food and to watch proceedings, and as a result, there is
much drunkenness and noise. Ceremonies are performed both at the
temple and in the home. The new bhikkhu later leaves the Order
again only a few days after having been ordained, and may become
an even stronger temple-hater than he was before. It must be borne
in mind that there was none of this at the time of the Buddha. It
is a later development. Ordination at the time of the Buddha meant
simply, that some individual, who had obtained his parent's
consent, renounced home and family. He was a person who was
able to close accounts at home and go off to join the Buddha
and the Order of bhikkhus. On some convenient occasion he
would go and be ordained, and perhaps not see his parents or family
again for the rest of his life. Though some bhikkhus might go back
to visit their parents again on suitable occasions, this was rare.
There does exist a rule permitting a bhikkhu to go home when there
is a good reason for doing so, but at the time of the Buddha this was
not the done thing. Bhikkhus did not receive ordination with their
parents in attendance nor did they celebrate the event as a great
occasion, only to leave the Sangha again after just a few days,
no better off than at first, as commonly happens in the present day.
All this presenting of gifts to newly ordained bhikkhus, this
performing of ceremonies, including all sorts of celebration--this
we are foolish enough to call Buddhism! Furthermore we choose to
make much of it, thinking nothing of spending all our own money, or
other people's on account of it. This "Neo-Buddhism" is so
widespread as to be almost universal. The Dhamma, the genuine
teaching that once was paramount has become so overlaid by ceremonial
that the whole objective of Buddhism has been obscured, falsified and
changed. Ordination, for instance, has become a face-saving
gambit for young men whom people have been pointing at for
never having been ordained, or a prerequisite to finding a wife
(as having been a monk is considered a sign of maturity), or is
done with some other kind of ulterior motive. In some places an
ordination is regarded as an opportunity for collecting money for
which job there are always people on hand to help. It is one way of
getting rich. Even this they call Buddhism! And anyone who goes and
criticizes this is considered to be ignorant of Buddhism or opposed to it.
Another example is the presentation of kathina cloth The
Buddha's original intention was to have cloth for robes given to all
the bhikkhus simultaneously so that they could sew it together
themselves with a minimum loss of time. If there was only one
robe, it was allocated to some bhikkhu not necessarily the most
senior one, whom the group considered worthy of using that role
or in need of it, and was presented to him in the name of the
entire order. The Buddha's intention was to avoid any bhikkhu's having
a high opinion of himself. On that day everyone, regardless of rank,
had to humble himself and be one of the crowd. Everyone had to lend a
hand cutting and sewing the cloth, boiling tree pith to make the
dye, and whatever else was involved in getting the robes ready
and finished the same day. Making the cloth into robes was a
cooperative effort. That is how the Buddha intended it to be, an
event not necessarily involving lay people at all. But nowadays it
has become an affair involving ceremony, fun and games, loud
laughter and money seeking. It is just a picnic and is devoid of all
the desirable results originally intended.
This sort of thing is a tumor which has developed in Buddhism
and thrived. The tumor takes hundreds of different forms too numerous
to name. It is a dangerous, malignant growth which by degrees has
completely overlaid and obscured the good material, the real pith
of Buddhism, and quite disfigured it. One result of this has been the
arising of many sects, some large, some insignificant, as off-
shoots from the original religion. Some sects have even become
involved in sensuality. It is essential that we always discriminate
in order to recognize what is the real, original Buddhism. We must
not foolishly grasp at the outer shell, or become so attached to the
various rituals and ceremonies that the real objective becomes
quite lost to view. The real practice of Buddhism is based on
purification of conduct by way of body and speech, followed by
purification of the mind, which in its turn leads to insight and right
understanding. Don't go thinking that such and such is Buddhism just
because everyone says it is. The tumor has been spreading constantly since
the day the Buddha died, expanding in all directions right up to the
present day, so that it is now quite sizable. The tumor in Buddhism must
not be misidentified as Buddhism itself. It is also wrong for of other
religions to come and point at these shameful disgraceful growths as being
Buddhism. It is unjust, because these things are not Buddhism at all; they are
excressences. Those of us interested in furthering Buddhism, whether as a
foothold for all people, or for our own private well-being, must know
how to get hold of the true essence of Buddhism and not just grab at
some worthless outgrowth. Now even the genuine Buddhism is many-sided, a fact which
may lead to a false grasp of true meaning. For instance, if looked at
from the point of view of a moral philosopher, Buddhism is seen to
be a religion of morality. There is talk of merit and demerit, good
and evil, honesty, gratitude, harmony, open-heartedness and much
more besides. The Tipitaka is full of moral teachings. Many
newcomers to Buddhism approach it from this angle and are
attracted to it on this account.
A more profound aspect is Buddhism as Truth, as the deep
hidden truth lying below the surface and invisible to the ordinary
man. To see this truth is to know intellectual emptiness of all
things; the transience, unsatisfactoriness and non-selfhood of all
things; to know intellectually the nature of suffering, of the
complete elimination of suffering and of the way to attain the
complete elimination of suffering; to perceive these in terms of
absolute truth, the kind that changes and which everyone ought to
know. This is Buddhism as
Truth.
Buddhism as Religion is Buddhism as a system of practice
based on morality, concentration and insight, and culminating in
liberating insight; a system which when practiced to completion
enables one to break free from suffering. This is Buddhism as
Religion.
Then there is Buddhism as Psychology, as it is presented to us
in the third section of the Tipitaka, where the nature of the mind
is described in remarkable detail. Buddhist psychology is a source
of interest and astonishment to students of the mind even in the
present day. It is far more detailed and profound than present day
psychological knowledge.
Another aspect is Buddhism as Philosophy. Philosophical
knowledge can be clearly seen by means of reasoned logical proofs
but cannot be demonstrated experimentally. It contrasts with
science, which is knowledge resulting from seeing something
clearly, with our eyes, or through physical experimentation and
proof, or even with the "inner eye" of intuition. Profound
knowledge such as that of emptiness is just philosophy for a
person who has not yet penetrated to the truth, and science for
another who has done so, such as a fully enlightened individual,
or arahant, who has seen it clearly, intuitively. Many aspects of
Buddhism, in particular the Four Noble Truths, are scientific in so
far as they can be verified by clear experimental proof using introspection.
For anyone equipped with awareness and interested in studying and carrying
out research, the cause - effect relationships are there just as in science.
Buddhism is not just something obscure and vague, not just philosophy, as are
man-made subjects.
Some look on Buddhism as Culture. Anyone with a high regard for
culture finds many aspects of Buddhist practice which are common
to all cultures and also many that are characteristically Buddhist
and far better and higher than anything in other cultures.
Of all these various aspects, the one a real Buddhist ought to
take most interest in is Buddhism as Religion. We ought to look on
Buddhism as a direct practical method for gaining knowledge of the
true nature of things, knowledge which makes it possible to give up
every form of grasping and clinging, of stupidity and infatuation,
and become completely independent of things. To do this is to
penetrate to the essence of Buddhism. Buddhism considered in this
aspect is far more useful than Buddhism considered as mere
morality, or as truth which is simply profound knowledge and not
really practical; and more useful than Buddhism considered as
philosophy, as something to be enjoyed as an object of speculation and
argument of no value in the giving up of the mental defilements;
and certainly more useful than Buddhism considered simply as culture,
as attractive behavior, noteworthy from the sociological viewpoint.
At the very least, everyone ought to consider Buddhism as
Art, as the Art of Living--in other words, as skill and competence
in being a human being, living in a way that is exemplary and
praiseworthy, which so impresses others that they automatically
wish to emulate it. What we have to do is to cultivate the "Three
Lusters," firstly developing moral purity, training the mind to be
tranquil and steady and fit to its job, and finally developing such an
abundance of wisdom and clear insight into the nature of all things that those
things are no longer able to give rise to suffering. When anyone's life
has these Three Lusters, he can be considered to have mastered the
art of living. Westerners are extremely interested in Buddhism as
the Art of Living, and discuss this aspect more than any other.
Penetrating so far into the real essence of Buddhism that we are
able to take it as our guide to living induces spiritual good cheer and
joy, dispersing depression and disillusionment. It also dispels fears,
such as the fear that the complete giving up of spiritual defilements
would make life dry and dreary and utterly devoid of flavor, or the
fear that complete freedom from craving would make all thought and
action impossible, whereas in reality a person who organizes his
life in accordance with the Buddhist Art of Living is victor over all
the things about him. Regardless of whether these things be animals,
people, possessions, or anything else, and regardless of whether
they enter that person's consciousness by way of the eye, ear, nose,
tongue, body, or mind, they will enter as losers, unable to becloud,
defile, or perturb him. The winning of victory over all things is
genuine bliss.
Buddha-Dhamma will enrapture a mind that has developed a taste
for it. It can be considered an indispensable form of nourishment too.
True, a person still controlled by the defilements continues to
desire nourishment by way of the eye, ear, nose, tongue and body and
goes in search of it as suits his nature. But there is another part of him,
something deeper, that does not demand that sort of nourishment.
It is the free or pure element in his mind. It wishes the joy and
delight of spiritual nourishment, starting with the delight that results from
moral purity. It is the source of contentment for fully enlightened
individuals, who possess such tranquillity of mind that defilements
cannot disturb them, who possess clear insight into the true nature
of all things and have no ambitions with regard to any of them. They
are, so to speak, able to sit down without being obliged to run hither
and yon like those people to whom the Buddha applied the simile
"smoke by night, fire by day."
"Smoke by night" refers to sleeplessness, restlessness. A
sufferer from this complaint lies all night with hand on brow,
planning on going after this and that, working out how to get money,
how to get rich quickly and get the various things he desires. His
mind is full of "smoke." All he can do is lie there until morning, when
he can get up and go running off in obedience to the wishes of the
"smoke" he has been holding back all night. This fervent activity is
what the Buddha referred to as "fire by day." These are the symptoms
of a mind that has not achieved tranquillity, a mind that has been
deprived of spiritual nourishment. It is a pathological hunger and
thirst induced by the defilement called craving. All night long the
victim represses the smoke and heat, which in the morning becomes
fire, and then blazes hot inside him all day. If a person is obliged,
throughout his entire life, to suppress the "smoke by night," which then
becomes "fire by day," how can he ever find peace and coolness? Just
visualize his condition. He endures suffering and torment all his life,
from birth up until he enters the coffin, simply for lack of the insight that
could completely extinguish that fire and smoke. To treat such a
complaint one has to make use of the knowledge provided by the
Buddha. The smoke and fire diminish in proportion to one's degree
of understanding of the true nature of things.
As we have said, Buddhism has a number of different
aspects or sides. Just as the same mountain when viewed from a
different direction presents a different appearance, so different
benefits are derived from Buddhism according to how one looks at it.
Even Buddhism has its origins in fear--not the foolish fear of an
ignorant person who kneels and makes obeisance to idols or
strange phenomena, but a higher kind of fear, the fear of perhaps
never attaining liberation from the oppression of birth, aging, pain
and death, from the various forms of suffering we experience. The
real Buddhism is not books, not manuals, not word for word repetition
from the Tipitaka, nor is it rites and rituals. These are not the real
Buddhism. The real Buddhism is the practice, by way of body,
speech and mind that will destroy the defilements, in part or
completely. One need not have anything to do with books or
manuals. One ought not to rely on rites and rituals, or anything else
external, including spirits and celestial beings. Rather one must be
directly concerned with bodily action, speech and thought. That is, one must
persevere in one's efforts to control and eliminate the defilements so that
clear insight can arise. One will then be automatically capable of
acting appropriately, and will be free of suffering from that moment
right up to the end.
This is the real Buddhism. This is what we have to understand.
Let us not go foolishly grasping at the tumor that is obscuring
Buddhism, taking it for the real thing.
THE TRUE NATURE OF THINGS
The word "religion" has a broader meaning than the word
"morality." Morality has to do with behavior and happiness, and is
basically the same the world over. A religion is a system of
practice of a high order. The ways of practice advocated by the
various religions differ greatly.
Morality made us good people, behaving in accordance with the
general principles of community life and in such a way as to cause
no distress to ourselves or others. But though a person may be
thoroughly moral, he may still be far from free of the suffering
attendant on birth, aging, pain and death, still not free from
oppression by the mental defilements. Morality stops well short
of the elimination of craving, aversion and delusion, so cannot do
away with suffering. Religion, particularly Buddhism, goes much
further than this. It aims directly at the complete elimination of
the defilements, that is, it aims at extinguishing the various
kinds of suffering attendant on birth, aging, pain and death. This
indicates how religion differs from mere morality, and how much
further Buddhism goes than the moral systems of the world in
general. Having understood this, we can now turn our attention to
Buddhism itself.
Buddhism is a system designed to bring a technical
knowledge inseparable from its technique of practice, an
organized practical understanding of the true nature of things or
what is what. If you keep this definition in mind, you should have
no difficulty understanding Buddhism.
Examine yourself and see whether or not you know what is
what. Even if you know what you are yourself, what life is, what
work, duty, livelihood, money, possessions, honor and fame are,
would you dare to claim that you know everything? If we really
knew what is what, we would never act inappropriately; and if
we always acted appropriately, it is a certainty that we would never be
subject to suffering. As it is, we are ignorant of the true nature of things, so we
behave more or less inappropriately, and suffering results
accordingly. Buddhist practice is designed to teach us how things
really are. To know this in all clarity is to attain the Fruit of the Path,
perhaps even the final Fruit, Nirvana, because this very knowledge is what destroys
the defilements. When we come to know what is what, or the true nature of things,
disenchantment with things takes the place of fascination, and
deliverance from suffering comes about automatically. At the
moment, we are practicing at a stage where we still do not know
what things are really like, in particular, at the stage of not yet
realizing that all things are impermanent and not selves. We don't as
yet realize that life, all the things that we become infatuated with,
like, desire and rejoice over, is impermanent, unsatisfactory and not
self. It is for this reason that we become infatuated with those
things, liking them, desiring them, rejoicing over them, grasping at
them and clinging to them. When, by following the Buddhist method,
we come
to know things aright, to see clearly that they are all impermanent,
unsatisfactory and not selves, that there is really nothing about
things that might make it worth attaching our selves to them, then
there will immediately come about a slipping free from the
controlling power of those things.
Essentially the Buddha's teaching as we have it in the Tipitaka
is nothing but the knowledge of what is what or the true nature of
things--just that. Do keep to this definition. It is an adequate one and
it is well to bear it in mind while one is in the course of practicing.
We shall now demonstrate the validity of this definition by
considering as an example the Four Noble Truths.
The First Noble Truth, which points out that all things are
suffering, tells us precisely what things are like. But we fail to realize
that all things are a source of suffering and so we desire those things.
If we recognized them as a source of suffering, not worth desiring,
not worth grasping at and clinging to, not worth attaching
ourselves to, we would be sure not to desire them. The Second
Noble Truth points out that desire is the cause of suffering.
People still don't know, don't see, don't understand, that desires
are the cause of suffering. They all desire this, that and the
other, simply because they don't understand the nature of desire.
The Third Noble Truth
points out that deliverance, freedom from suffering, Nirvana,
consists in the complete extinguishing of desire. People don't
realize at all that nirvana is something that may be attained at any
time or place, that it can be arrived at just as soon as desire has
been completely extinguished. So, not knowing the facts of life,
people are not interested in extinguishing desire. They are not
interested in nirvana because they don't know what it is.
The Fourth Noble Truth is called the Path and constitutes
the method for extinguishing desire. No one understands it as a
method for extinguishing desire. No one is interested in the
desire
extinguishing Noble Eightfold Path. People don't recognize it as
their very point of support, their foothold, something which they
ought to be most actively reinforcing. They are not interested in
the Buddha's Noble Path, which happens to be the most excellent
and precious things in the entire mass of human knowledge, in this
world or any other. This is a most horrifying piece of ignorance. We
can see, then, that the Four Noble Truths are information telling us
clearly just
what is what. We are told that if we play with desire, it will give
rise to suffering, and yet we insist on playing with it until we are
brim full of suffering. This is foolishness. Not really knowing what is
what or the true nature of things, we act in every way
inappropriately.
Our actions are appropriate all too rarely. They are usually
"appropriate" only in terms of the values of people subject to craving,
who would say that if one gets what one wants, the action must have
been justified. But spiritually speaking, that action is unjustifiable.
Now we shall have a look at a stanza from the texts which sums
up the essence of Buddhism, namely the words spoken by the
bhikkhu Assaji when he met Sariputta before the latter's
ordination. Sariputta asked to be told the essence of Buddhism in
as few words as possible. Assaji answered: "All phenomena that
arise do so as a result of causes. The Perfected One has shown
what the causes are, and also how all phenomena may be brought
to an end by
eliminating those causes. This is what the Great Master teaches."
He
said in effect: Every thing has causes that combine to produce it.
It cannot be eliminated unless those causes have been eliminated
first. This is a word of guidance warning us not to regard anything
as a permanent self. There is nothing permanent. There are only
effects arising out of causes, developing by virtue of causes, and
due to cease with the cessation of those causes. All phenomena
are merely products of causes. The world is just a perpetual flux
of natural forces incessantly interacting and changing. Buddhism
points out to us that all things are devoid of any self entity. They
are just a perpetual flux of change, which is inherently
unsatisfactory because of the lack of freedom, the subjection to
causality. This unsatisfactoriness will be brought to an end as
soon as the process stops; and the process will stop as soon as
the causes are eliminated so that there is no more interacting.
This is a most profound account
of "what is what" or the nature of things, such as only an enlightened
individual could give. It is the heart of Buddhism. It tells us that all
things are just appearances and that we should not be fooled into
liking or disliking them. Rendering the mind truly free involves
escaping completely from the causal chain by utterly eliminating the
causes. In this way, the unsatisfactory condition which results from
liking and disliking will be brought to an end.
Let us now examine the Buddha's intention in becoming an ascetic.
What motivated him to become a bhikkhu? This is clearly indicated
in one of his discourses, in which he says that he left home and
became a bhikkhu in order to answer the question: "What is the
Good?" The word "good"(Kusala), as used here by the Buddha,
refers to skillfulness, to absolutely right knowledge. He wanted
to know in
particular what is suffering, what is the cause of suffering, what
is freedom from suffering, and what is the method that will lead
to freedom from suffering. To attain perfect and right knowledge
is the ultimate in skill. The aim of Buddhism is nothing other this
perfection of knowledge of what is what or the true nature of
things.
Another important Buddhist teaching is that of the Three
Characteristics, namely impermanence (anicca),
unsatisfactoriness or suffering (dukkha) and non - selfhood
(anatta). Not to know this teaching is not to know Buddhism. It
points out to us that all things are impermanent (anicca), all
things are unsatisfactory(dukkha), and all things are not selves
(anatta). In saying that all things are impermanent we mean that
things change perpetually, there being
no entity or self remains unchanged for even an instant. That
all
things are unsatisfactory means that all things have inherent in
them the property of conducing to suffering and torment. They are
inherently unlikable and disenchanting. That they are not selves is
to say that in no thing whatsoever is there any entity which we
might have a right to regard as its "self" or to call "mine." If we
grasp at
things and cling to things, the result is bound to be suffering. Things
are more dangerous than fire because we can at least see a fire
blazing away and so don't go too close to it, whereas all things are a
fire we can't see. Consequently we go about voluntarily picking up
handfuls of fire which is invariably painful. This teaching tells us
what things are like in terms of the Three Characteristics. Clearly
Buddhism is simply an organized practical system designed to show
what is what.
We have seen that we have to know the nature of things. We also
have to know how to practice in order to fit in with the nature of
things. There is another teaching in the texts, known as the Chief of
all Teachings. It consists of three brief points: "Avoid evil, do good,
purify the mind!" This is the principle of the practice. Knowing all
things as impermanent, worthless and not our property, and so not
worth clinging to, not worth becoming infatuated with, we have to
act appropriately and cautiously with respect to them, and that is
to avoid evil. It implies not to break with accepted moral
standards and to give up excessive craving and attachment. On the
other hand, one is to do good, good as has come to be understood by
wise people. These two are simply stages in morality. The third,
which tells us to make the mind completely pure of every kind of
contaminating element, is straight Buddhism. It tells us to make
the mind free. As long as the mind is not yet free from domination
by things, it cannot be a clean, pure mind. Mental freedom must
come from the most profound knowledge of the what is what. As
long as one lacks this
knowledge, one is bound to go on mindlessly liking or disliking
things in one way or another. As long as one cannot remain unmoved
by things, one can hardly be called free. Basically we human beings
are subject to just two kinds of emotional states: liking and
disliking (which correspond to pleasant and unpleasant mental
feeling). We fall slaves to our moods and have no real freedom
simply because we don't know the true nature of moods or what is
what. Liking has the
characteristic of seizing on things and taking them over; disliking
has the characteristic of pushing things away and getting rid of
them. As long as these two kinds of emotional states exist, the mind
is not yet
free. As long as it is still carelessly liking and disliking this, that the
other, there is no way it can be purified and freed from the tyranny
of things. For this very reason, this highest teaching of
Buddhism condemns grasping and clinging to things attractive
and repulsive, ultimately condemning even attachment good
and evil. When the mind has been purified of these two
emotional reactions, it will become independent of things.
Other religions would have us simply avoid evil and grasp
at goodness. They have us grasp at and become attached to
goodness, even including the epitome of goodness, namely God.
Buddhism goes much further, condemning attachment to
anything at all. This
attachment to goodness is right practice at the intermediate level,
but it just can't take us to the high level no matter what we do. At
the lowest level we avoid evil, at the intermediate level we do our
utmost to do good, while at the highest level we make the mind
float high above the domination of both good and evil. The condition
of attachment to the fruits of goodness is not yet complete
liberation from suffering, because, while an evil person suffers in
a way befitting evil persons, a good person suffers also, in a way
befitting good persons. Being good, one experiences the kind of
suffering appropriate to good human beings. A good celestial being
experiences the suffering appropriate to celestial beings, and even
a god or Brahma experiences the suffering appropriate to gods. But
complete freedom from all suffering will come only when one has
broken free and transcended even that which we call goodness to
become an Aryian, one who has transcended the worldly condition,
and
ultimately to become a fully perfected individual, an Arahant.
Now as we have seen, Buddhism is the teaching of the
Buddha, the Enlightened One, and a Buddhist is one who practices
according to the teaching of the Enlightened One. With regard to
what was he enlightened? He simply knew the nature of all things.
Buddhism, then, is the teaching that tells us the truth about what
things are really like or what is what. It is up to us to practice
until we have come to know that truth for ourselves. We may be
sure that once
that perfect knowledge has been attained, craving will be
completely destroyed by it, because ignorance will cease to be in
the very same moment that knowledge arises. Every aspect of
Buddhist practice is designed to bring knowledge. Your whole
purpose in setting your mind on the way of practice that will
penetrate to Buddha-Dhamma is simply to gain knowledge. Only,
do let it be right knowledge, knowledge attained through clear
insight, not worldly knowledge, partial knowledge, halfway
knowledge, which for example clumsily mistakes bad for good,
and a source of suffering for a source of
happiness. Do try your utmost to look at things in terms of
suffering, and so come to know, gradually, step by step. Knowledge
so gained will be Buddhist knowledge based on sound Buddhist
principles.
Studying by this method, even a woodcutter without book
learning
will be able to penetrate to the essence of Buddhism, while a
religious scholar with several degrees, who is completely absorbed
in studying the Tipitaka but doesn't look at things from this point
of view, may not penetrate the teaching at all. Those of us who
have some intelligence should be capable of investigating and
examining things and coming to know their true nature. Each thing
we come across we must study, in order to understand clearly its
true nature. And we must understand the nature and the source of
the suffering which produces, and which sets us alight and
scorches us. To establish mindfulness, to watch and wait, to
examine in the manner described the suffering that comes to one--
this is very best way to penetrate to Buddha-Dhamma. It is
infinitely better than learning it from the Tipitaka. Busily studying
Dhamma in the Tipitaka from the linguistic or literary viewpoint is
no way to come to know the true
nature of things. Of course the Tipitaka is full of explanations as to
the nature of things; but the trouble is that people listen to it in the
manner of parrots or talking myna birds, repeating later what they
have been able to memorize. They themselves are incapable of
penetrating to the true nature of things. If instead they would do
some introspection and discover for themselves the facts of mental
life, find out firsthand the properties of the mental defilements, of
suffering, of nature, in other words of all the things in which they are
involved, they would then be able to penetrate to the real Buddha-
Dhamma. Though a person may never have seen or even heard of the
Tipitaka, if he carries out detailed investigation every time suffering
arises and scorches his mind he can be said to be studying the
Tipitaka directly, and far more correctly than people actually in the
process of reading it. These may be just caressing the books of the
Tipitaka everyday without having any knowledge of the immortal
Dhamma, the teaching contained within them. Likewise, we
have ourselves, we make use of ourselves, we train ourselves,
and we do things connected with ourselves every day, without
knowing anything about ourselves, without being able to handle
adequately
problems concerning ourselves. We are still very definitely subject
to suffering, and craving is still present to produce more and more
suffering every day as we grow older, all simply because we don't
know ourselves. We still don't know the mental life we live. To get
to know the Tipitaka and the profound things hidden within it is
most difficult. Let us rather set about studying Buddha-Dhamma by
getting to know our own true nature. Let us get to know all
the things which make up this very body and mind. Let us
learn from
this life: life which is spinning on in the cycle of desiring, acting on
the desires, and reaping the results of the action, which then nourish
the will to desire again, and so on, over and over incessantly; life
which is obliged to go spinning on in the circle of samsara, that sea
of
suffering, purely and simply because of ignorance as to the true
nature of things or what is what.
Summing up, Buddhism is an organized practical system
designed to reveal to us the "what is what." Once we have seen
things as they really are, we no longer need anyone to teach or
guide us. We can carry on practicing by ourselves. One progresses
along the Aryian Path just as rapidly as one eliminates the
defilements and gives up inappropriate action. Ultimately one
will attain to the best thing possible for a human being, what we
call the Fruit of the Path, Nirvana. This one can do by oneself
simply by means of coming to know the ultimate sense of the
"what is what."
THREE UNIVERSAL CHARACTERISTICS
We shall now discuss in detail the three characteristics
common to all things, namely impermanence, unsatisfactoriness
(suffering) and non-selfhood.
All things whatsoever have the property of changing
incessantly; they are unstable. All things whatsoever have the
characteristic of unsatisfactoriness; seeing them evokes
disillusionment and disenchantment in anyone having clear insight
into their nature. Nothing whatsoever is such that we are justified
in regarding it as "mine." To our normally imperfect vision, things
appear as selves; but as soon as our vision becomes clear,
unobscured and accurate, we realize that there is no self-entity
present in any of them.
These three characteristics were the aspect of the teaching
which the Buddha stressed more than any other. The entire teaching
when summed up amounts simply to insight into impermanence,
unsatisfactoriness and non-selfhood. Sometimes they are
mentioned explicitly, sometimes they are expressed in other terms,
but fundamentally they aim at demonstrating the same single truth.
The impermanence of all things had been taught before the time of
the Buddha, but it had not been expounded as profoundly as it was
by
the Buddha. Unsatisfactoriness, likewise, had been taught but not
in its full depth. It had not been treated from the point of view of
causation, and no directions had been given as to how it could be
thoroughly and completely done away with. Earlier teachers had
not understood its true nature as did the Buddha in his
enlightenment. As for non-selfhood in the ultimate sense, this is
taught only in Buddhism This doctrine tells us that a person who
has complete understanding of the "what is what" or the nature
of things will
know that nothing whatsoever is a self or belongs to a self. This
was taught only by the Buddha, who truly had a complete and
thorough understanding of the "what is what" or the true nature of
things.
The ways of practice designed to bring about insight in
these
three characteristics are numerous; but one single note-worthy
fact is bound to be revealed once that perfect insight has been
attained, namely the fact that nothing is worth grasping at or
clinging to.
There is nothing that we should want to get, to have, to be. In short:
nothing is worth getting; nothing is worth being. Only when one has
come to perceive that having anything or being anything is a
delusion, a deception, a mirage, and that nothing at all is worth
getting or worth being, has one achieved true insight into
impermanence, unsatisfactoriness and non-selfhood. A man may
have been reciting the formula: "anicca, dukkha, anatta" morning
and evening hundreds and thousands of times and yet not be able to
perceive these characteristics. It is just not in their nature to be
perceptible through hearing or reciting.
Now intuitive insight, or what we call "seeing Dhamma,"
is not by any means the same thing as rational thinking. One will
never come to see Dhamma by means of rational thinking. Intuitive
insight can be gained only by means of a true inner realization. For
instance, suppose we are examining a situation where we had
thoughtlessly become quite wrapped up in something which later
caused us suffering. If, on looking closely at the actual course of
events, we
become genuinely fed up, disillusioned and disenchanted with that
thing, we can be said to have seen Dhamma, or to have gained clear
insight. This clear insight may develop in time until it is perfected,
and has the power to bring liberation from all things. If a person
recites aloud: "anicca, dukkha, anatta" or examines these
characteristics day and night without ever becoming disenchanted
with things, without ever losing the desire to get things or to be
something, or the desire to cling to things, that person has not yet
attained to insight. In short, then, insight into impermanence,
unsatisfactoriness and non-selfhood amounts to realizing that
nothing is worth getting or worth being.
There is a word in Buddhism that covers this completely, the
word sunnata, or emptiness, emptiness of selfhood, emptiness of
any essence that we might have a right to cling to with all our
might as being "mine." Observation, which leads to the insight that
all things
are devoid of any essence that is worth clinging to is the real core
of the religion. It is the key to Buddhist practice. When we have
come to know clearly that everything of every kind is devoid of
selfhood we can be said to know Buddha-Dhamma in its entirety. The
single phrase "empty of self" sums up the words "impermanent
(anicca), unsatisfactory (dukkha) and not self (anatta)." When
something is perpetually changing, devoid of any permanent
unchanging element,
it can also be said to be empty. When it is seen to be overflowing
with the property of inducing disillusionment, it can be described
as empty of any entity that we might have a right to cling to. And
when we discover on examination that it possesses no stable
component whatever that could be "self," that it is simply nature,
changing and fluctuating in accordance with the laws of nature,
which we have no
right to call a self, then it can be described as empty of self. As soon
as any individual has come to perceive the emptiness of things, there
arises in him the realization that it is not worth getting or being any
of those things. This feeling of not desiring to get or to be has the
power to protect one from falling slave, to the defilements or to any
kind of emotional involvement. Once an individual has attained this
condition, he is thenceforth incapable of any unwholesome state of
mind. He does become carried away by or involved in anything. He
does not become in any way attracted or seduced by anything. His
mind knows permanent liberty and independence, and is free from
suffering.
The statement "Nothing is worth getting or being" is to be
understood in a rather special sense. The words "get" and "be"
refer here to getting and being with a deluded mind, with a mind
that grasps and clings wholly and entirely. It is not suggested
that one
could live without having or being an thing at all. Normally there
are certain things one can't do without. One needs property,
children,
wife, garden, field and so on. One is to be good, one can't help being a
winner or a loser, or having some status or other. One can't help being
something or other. Why then are we taught to regard things
as not worth getting or being? The answer is this: the concepts
of getting and being are purely relative; they are worldly ideas
based
on ignorance. Speaking in terms of pure reality, or absolute truth,
we cannot get or be anything at all. And why? Simply because both
the person who is to do the getting and the thing that is to be got
are impermanent, unsatisfactory (suffering) and nobody's property.
But an individual who doesn't perceive this will naturally think "I
am
getting..., I have..., I am...." We automatically think in these terms,
and it is this very concept of getting and being that is the source of
distress and misery.
Getting and being represent a form of desire, namely the desire
not to let the thing that one is in the process of getting or being
disappear or slip away. Suffering arises from desire to have and
desire to be, in short, from desire; and desire arises from failure to
realize that all things are inherently undesirable. The false idea that
things are desirable is present as an instinct right from babyhood
and is the cause of desire. Consequent on the desire there come
about results of one sort or another, which may or may not accord
with the
desire. If the desired result is obtained, there will arise a still greater
desire. If the desired result is not obtained, there is bound to follow a
struggling and striving until one way or another it is obtained.
Keeping this up results in the vicious circle: action (karma), result,
action, result, which is known as the Wheel of Samsara. Now this
word samsara is not to be taken as referring to an endless cycle of
one physical existence after another. In point of fact it refers to a
vicious circle of three events: desire; action in keeping with the
desire; effect resulting from that action; inability to stop desiring,
having to desire once more; action; once again another effect; further
augmenting of desire ... and so on endlessly. Buddha called this the
"Wheel" of samsara because it is endless cycling on, a rolling on. It is
because of this very circle that we are obliged to endure suffering
and torment. To succeed in breaking loose from this vicious circle is
to attain freedom from all forms of suffering, in other words Nirvana.
Regardless of whether a person is a pauper or a millionaire, a king or
an emperor, a celestial being or a god, or anything at all, as long as he
is caught up in this vicious circle, he is obliged to experience
suffering and torment of one kind or another, in keeping with his
desire. We can say then that this wheel of samsara is well and truly
overloaded with suffering. For the rectifying of this situation morality
is quite inadequate. To resolve the problem we have to
depend on the highest principles of Dhamma.
We have seen that suffering has its origins in desire, which is
just what the Buddha set out in the Second Noble Truth. Now there are
three kinds of desire. The first kind is sensual desire, desiring and
finding pleasure in things: in shapes and colors, sounds, scents, tastes,
or tactile objects. The second kind is desire for becoming, desire to be
this or that according to what one wants. The third kind is desire not
to become, desire not to be this or that. That there are just these three
kinds of desire is an absolute rule. Anyone is defied to challenge this
rule and demonstrate the existence of a kind of desire other than these
three.
Anyone can observe that wherever there is desire, there distress
is too; and when we are forced to act on a desire, we are bound to
suffer again in accordance with the action. Having got the result, we
are unable to put an end to our desire, so we carry right on desiring.
The reason we are obliged to continue experiencing distress is that
we are not yet free from desire, but are still slaves to it. Thus it can
be said that an evil man does evil because he desires to do evil, and
experiences the kind of suffering appropriate to the nature of an evil
man; and that a good man desires to do good, and so is bound to
experience another kind of suffering, a kind appropriate to the
nature of a good man. But don't understand this as teaching us to
give up doing good. It is simply teaching us to realize that there exist
degrees of suffering so fine that the average man cannot detect them.
We have to act on the Buddha's advice: if we are to break free from
suffering completely, simply doing good is not sufficient. It is
necessary to do things beyond and above the doing of good, things
that will serve to free the mind from the condition of serfdom
and slavery to desire of any kind. This is the quintessence of
the Buddha's teaching. It cannot be bettered or equaled by any
other religion in the world, so ought to be carefully
remembered. To succeed in overcoming these three forms of
desire is to attain complete liberation from suffering.
How can we eliminate desire, extinguish it, cut it out at its
roots and put an end to it for good? The answer to this is simply:
observe and take note of impermanence, unsatisfactoriness
(suffering) and non-selfhood until we come to see that there is
nothing worth desiring. What is there worth getting or being? What
is there such that when a person has got it or becomes it, it fails to
give rise to some kind of suffering? Ask yourself this question: What
is there
that you can get or be that will not bring distress and anxiety?
Think it over. Does having a wife and children lead to
lightheartedness and
freedom or does it bring all sorts of responsibilities? Is the gaining of
high position and title the gaining of peace and calm or the gaining of
heavy obligations? Looking at things in this way, we readily see
that these things always bring only burden and responsibility. And
why? Everything whatsoever is a burden simply by virtue of its
characteristics of impermanence, unsatisfactoriness and non
selfhood. Having got something, we have to see to it that it stays
with us, is as we wish it to be, or is of benefit to us. But that thing is
by nature impermanent unsatisfactory and nobody's property. It
cannot conform to the aims and objectives of anyone. It will only
change as is its nature. All our efforts, then, are an attempt to oppose
and withstand the law of change; and life, as an attempt to make
things conform to our wishes, is fraught with difficulty suffering.
There exists a technique for coming to realize that nothing at all
is worth getting or being. It consists in examining things deeply enough
to discover that in the presence of craving one has feelings of a
certain kind towards getting and being; that when desire has given
way completely to insight into the true nature of things, one's
attitude towards getting and being is rather different. As an easy
example let us consider eating. One man's eating accompanied by
craving and desire for delicious tastes must have certain features
that distinguish it from another man's eating, which is
accompanied not by desire, but by clear comprehension, or insight
into the true nature of things. Their eating manners must differ,
their feelings while eating must differ, and so must the results
arising from their eating.
Now what we have to realize is that one can still eat food
even though one lacks all craving for delicious tastes. The Buddha
and Arahants, individuals devoid of craving, were still able to do
things and be things. They were still able to do work, far more in
fact than any of us can with all our desires. What was the power
by virtue of which they did it? What corresponded to the power of
craving, of desiring to be this or that, by virtue of which we do
things? The
answer is that they did it by the power of insight, clear and
thorough knowledge of what is what or the true nature of things.
We by contrast are motivated by desire, with the result that we
are, unlike them, continually subject to suffering. They did not
desire to get or possess anything, and as a result others were
benefited thanks to their benevolence. Their wisdom told them to
make it known rather than remain indifferent, and so they were
able to pass the teaching on to us.
Freedom from craving brings many incidental benefits. A body
and mind freed from craving can look for and partake of food
motivated by intelligent discrimination and not, as before, by
desire. If we wish to break free from suffering, following the
footsteps of the Buddha and the arahants, then we must train
ourselves to act with discrimination rather than with craving. If
you are a student, then learn how to distinguish right from wrong,
good from bad, and
verify that studying is the very best thing for you to be doing. If you
have a job of some kind, then learn how to distinguish right from
wrong, good from bad, and satisfy yourself that that job is the best
thing for you to be doing, and of benefit to all concerned. Then do it
well, and with all the coolness and equanimity your insight provides.
If, in doing something, we are motivated by desire, then we worry
while doing it and we worry when we have finished; but if we do it
with the guiding power of discrimination, we shall not be worried at
all. This is the difference it makes.
It is essential, then, that we be always aware that, in reality
all things are impermanent, unsatisfactory and not selves, that is,
that they are not worth getting or being. If we are to become involved
in them, then let us do so with discrimination and our actions will
not be contaminated with desire. If we act wisely, we shall be free of
suffering right from beginning to end. The mind will not blindly
grasp at and cling to things as worth getting and being. We shall
be sure to act with wakefulness, and be able to proceed in
accordance with tradition and custom, or in accordance with the
law. For example, though we may own land and property, we need
not necessarily have any greedy feelings about them. We need not
cling
to things to the extent that they become a burden, weighing down
and tormenting the mind. The law is bound to see to it that our
piece of land remains in our possession. We don't need to suffer
worry and anxiety about it. It isn't going to slip through our
fingers and disappear. Even if someone comes along and snatches
it from us, we can surely still resist and protect it intelligently.
We can resist without becoming angry, without letting ourselves
become heated with the flame of hatred. We can depend on the law
and do our resisting without any need to experience suffering.
Certainly we
ought to watch over our property; but if it should in fact slip out of
our grip, then becoming emotional about it won't help matters at
all. All things are impermanent, perpetually changing. Realizing
this, we need not become upset about anything.
"Being" is the same. There is no need to cling to one's state of being
this or that, because in reality there is no satisfactory condition at all.
All conditions bring about suffering of one kind or another. There is a
very simple technique, which we must have a look at later, known as
vipassana, the direct practice of Dhamma. It consists of close
introspection, which reveals that there is nothing worth being, or
that there is really no satisfactory state of being at all. Have a look at
this question yourself; see if you can discover any satisfactory
condition or state of being. Being a son? a parent? husband? wife?
master? servant? Is any of these agreeable? Even being the man
with the advantage, the one with the upper hand, the winner--is
that agreeable? Is the condition of a human being agreeable?
Even the condition of a celestial being or a god--would that be
agreeable? When you have really come to know the what is what,
you find that nothing whatsoever is in any way agreeable. We are
making do with mindlessly getting and being. But why should we
go risking life and limb by getting and being blindly, always
acting on desire? It behooves us to understand things and live
wisely, involving ourselves in things in such a way that they
cause a minimum of suffering, or ideally, none at all.
Here is another point: we must bring to our fellow men, our
friends, and particularly our relatives and those close to us, the
understanding that this is how things are, so that they may have
the same right view as we have. There will then be no upsets in
the family, the town, the country, and ultimately in the whole
world. Each individual mind will be immune to desire, neither
grasping at nor becoming wrapped up in anything or anyone.
Instead everyone's
life will be guided by insight, by the ever-present, unobscured
vision that there is in reality nothing that we can grasp at and
cling to. Everyone will come to realize that all things are
impermanent, unsatisfactory and devoid of any self-entity, that
none of them are worth becoming infatuated with. It is up to us to
have the sense to give them up, to have right views, in keeping with
the Buddha's teaching. A person who has done this is fit to be called
a true Buddhist. Though he may never have been ordained nor even
taken
the precepts, he will have truly penetrated to Buddha, Dhamma
and Sangha. His mind will be identical with that of Buddha,
Dhamma and Sangha. It will be uncontaminated, enlightened and
tranquil, simply by virtue of not grasping at anything as worth
getting or worth being. So a person can readily become a
genuine, full-fledged Buddhist simply by means of this
technique of being observant, perceiving impermanence,
unsatisfactoriness selfhood until he comes to realize that there
is nothing worth getting or being.
The lowest forms of evil originate in and are powered by
desire to get and to be; milder forms of evil consist of actions less
strongly motivated by desire; and all goodness consists of action
based on the finest, most tenuous sort of desire, the desire to get or
to be, on a good level. Even in its highest forms, good is based on
desire which, however, is so fine and tenuous that people don't
consider it in any way a bad thing. The fact is, however, that good
action can never bring complete freedom from suffering. A person
who has become
free from desire, that is to say an Arahant, is one who has
ceased acting on desire and has become incapable of doing evil.
His actions
lie outside the categories of good and evil. His mind is free and has
transcended the limitations of good and evil. Thus he is completely
free of suffering.
This is a fundamental principle of Buddhism. Whether or not we
are able to do it or wish to do it, this is the way to liberation from
suffering. Today we may not yet want it; some day we are bound to
want it. When we have completely given up evil and have done good
to our utmost, the mind will still be weighed down with various
kinds of attenuated desire, and there is no known way of getting
rid of them other than by striving to go beyond the power of
desire, to
go beyond the desire to get or be anything, bad or good. If there is to
be Nirvana, freedom from suffering of every kind, there has to be
absolute and complete absence of desire.
In short, to know what is what in the ultimate sense is to see
everything as impermanent, unsatisfactory and devoid of selfhood.
When we really know this, the mind comes to see things in such a
way that it does not cling to get or to be anything. But if we have
to become involved in things in the ways known as "having" and
"being," then we become involved intelligently, motivated by
insight, and not by desire. Acting thus, we remain free from
suffering.
GRASPING AND CLINGING
How can we get away from and become completely independent
of things, all of which are transient, unsatisfactory and devoid of
selfhood? The answer is that we have to find out what is the cause
of our desiring those things and clinging to them. Knowing that
cause, we shall be in a position to eliminate clinging completely.
Buddhists recognize four different kinds of clinging or attachment.
1) Sensual attachment (Kamupanana) is clinging to attractive
and desirable sense objects. It is the attachment that we naturally
develop for things we like and find satisfaction in: colors and
shapes, sounds, odors, tastes, tactile objects, or mental images,
objects past, present, or future that arise in the mind, and either
correspond to material objects in the world outside or within. the
body, or are just imaginings. We instinctively find pleasure,
enchantment, delight in these six kinds of sense objects. They induce
delight and
enchantment in the mind perceiving them.
As soon as an individual is born, he comes to know the
taste of these six sense objects, and clings to them; and as
time passes he becomes more and more firmly attached to
them. Ordinary people are incapable of withdrawing from them
again, so they present a major problem. It is necessary to have
a proper knowledge and
understanding of these sense objects and to act appropriately
with respect to them, otherwise clinging to them may lead to
complete and utter dereliction. If we examine the case history
of any person
who has sunk into dereliction, we always find that it has come
about through his clinging fast to some desirable sense object.
Actually every single thing a human being does has its origin in
sensuality. Whether we love, become angry, hate, feel envious,
murder, or commit suicide, the ultimate cause must be some
sense object. If we investigate what is it that drives human beings to work
energetically, or to do anything at all for that matter, we find it is desire, desire to
get things of one kind or another. People strive, study, and earn what
money they can, and then go off in search of pleasure-in the form of
colors and shapes, sounds, odors, tastes, and tactile objects-which is
what keeps them going. Even merit making in order to go to heaven
has its origins simply in a wish based on sensuality. Taken
together, all the trouble and chaos in the world has its origin in
sensuality.
The danger of sensuality lies in the power of sensual attachment.
For this reason the Buddha reckoned clinging to sensuality as the
primary form of attachment. It is a real world problem. Whether
the world is to be completely destroyed, or whatever is to happen,
is bound to depend on this very sensual clinging. It behooves us to
examine ourselves to find out in what ways we are attached to
sensuality and how firmly, and whether it is not perhaps within
our power to give it up. Speaking in worldly terms, attachment
to sensuality is a very good thing. It conduces to family love, to
diligence and energy in the search for wealth and fame, and so
on.
But if looked at from the spiritual point of view, it is seen to be the
secret en trance for suffering and torment. Spiritually speaking,
attachment to sensuality is something to be kept under control. And
if all suffering is to be eliminated, sensual attachment has to be done
away with completely.
2) Attachment to opinions (Ditthupadana). Clinging to views
and opinions is not difficult to detect and identify once we do a little
introspection. Ever since we were born into the world, we have been
receiving instruction and training, which has given rise to ideas and
opinions. In speaking here of opinions, what we have in mind is the
kind of ideas one hangs on to and refuses to let go of. To cling to one's
own ideas and opinions is quite natural and is not normally condemned
or disapproved of. But it is no less grave a danger than attachment to
attractive and desirable objects. It can happen that preconceived
ideas and opinions to which we had always clung obstinately come to
be destroyed. For this reason it is necessary that we continually
amend our views, making them progressively more correct, better,
higher, changing false views into views that are closer and closer to
the truth, and ultimately into the kind of views that incorporate the
Four Noble Truths.
Obstinate and stubborn opinions have various origins, but in the
main they are bound up with customs, traditions, ceremonies and
religious doctrines. Stubborn personal convictions are not a matter of
great importance. They are far less numerous than convictions
stemming from long held popular traditions and ceremonies.
Adherence to views is based on ignorance. Lacking knowledge, we
develop our own personal views on things, based on our own
original stupidity. For instance, we are convinced that things are
desirable and worth clinging to, that they really endure, are
worthwhile and are selves, instead of perceiving that they are
just a delusion and a deception, transient, worthless and devoid of
selfhood. Once we have come to have certain ideas about
something, we naturally don't like to admit later on that we were
mistaken. Even though we may occasionally see that we are wrong,
we simply refuse to admit it.
Obstinacy of this sort is to be considered a major obstacle to
progress, rendering us incapable of changing for the better, incapable
of modifying false religious convictions and other longstanding
beliefs. This is likely to be a problem for people who hold to naive
doctrines. Even though they may later come to see them as naive, they
refuse
to change on the grounds that their parents, grandparents and
ancestors all held those same views. Or if they are not really
interested in correcting and improving themselves, they may
simply brush away any arguments against their old ideas with
the remark that this is what they have always believed. For these
very reasons, attachment to opinions is to be considered a
dangerous defilement, a
major danger, which, if we are to better ourselves at all, we ought
to make all efforts to eliminate.
3) Attachment to rites and rituals (Silabbatupadana). This
refers to clinging to meaningless traditional practices that have
been thoughtlessly handed down, practices which people choose to
regard as sacred and not to be changed under any circumstances. In
Thailand there is no less of this sort of thing than in other places.
There are beliefs involving amulets, magical artifacts and all
manner of secret procedures. There exist, for instance, the beliefs
that on rising from sleep one must pronounce a mystical formula
over water and then wash one's face in it, that before relieving
nature one must turn and face this and that point of the compass,
and that before one
partakes of food or goes to sleep there have to be other rituals.
There are beliefs in spirits and celestial beings, in sacred trees and
all
manner of magical objects. This sort of thing is completely
irrational. People just don't think rationally; they simply cling to the
established pattern. They have always done it that way and they just
refuse to change. Many people professing to be Buddhists cling to
these beliefs as well and so have it both ways; and this even includes
some who
call themselves bhikkhus, disciples of the Buddha. Religious
doctrines based on belief in God, angels and sacred objects are
particularly prone to these kinds of views; there is no reason why
we Buddhists should not be completely free of this sort of thing.
The reason we have to be free of such views is that if we
practice any aspect of Dhamma unaware of its original purpose,
unconscious
of the rationale of it, the result is bound to be the foolish, naive
assumption that it is something magical. Thus we find people
taking upon themselves the moral precepts or practicing Dhamma,
purely and simply to conform with the accepted pattern, the
traditional ceremonial, just to follow the example that has been
handed down. They know nothing of the rationale of these
things, doing them just out of force of habit. Such firmly
established clinging is hard to correct. This is what is meant by
thoughtless attachment to
traditional practices. Insight meditation or tranquillity meditation
as practiced nowadays, if carried out without any knowledge of rhyme
and reason and the real objectives of it, is bound to motivated by
grasping and clinging, misdirected, and just some kind of
foolishness. And even the taking of the Precepts, five, eight, or ten,
or however many, if done in the belief that one will thereby become
a magical, supernatural, holy individual possessing psychic or other
powers, becomes just misdirected routine, motivated simply by
attachment to rite and ritual.
It is necessary, then, that we be very cautious. Buddhist
practice must have a sound foundation in thought and understanding
and
desire to destroy the defilements. Otherwise it will be just
foolishness; it will be misdirected, irrational a just a waste of
time.
4) Attachment to the idea of selfhood (Attavadupadana). The
belief in selfhood is something important and also something
extremely well concealed. Any living creature is always bound to
have the wrong idea of "me and mine." This is the primal instinct
of
living things and is the basis of all other instincts. For example, the
instinct to seek food and eat it, the instinct to avoid danger, the
instinct to procreate, and many others consist simply in the
creature's instinctive awareness of a belief in its own selfhood.
Convinced first of all of its own selfhood, it will naturally desire to
avoid death, to search for food and nourish its body, to seek safety,
and to propagate the species. A belief in selfhood is, then, universally
present in all living things. If it were not so, they could not continue
to survive. At the same time, however, it is what causes suffering in
the search for food and shelter, in the propagation of the species, or
in any activity whatsoever. This is one reason why the Buddha
taught that attachment to the self-idea is the root cause of all
suffering. He summed it up very briefly by saying: "Things, if
clung
to, are suffering, or are a source of suffering." This attachment is the
source and basis of life; at the same time it is the source and basis of
suffering in all its forms. It was this very fact that the Buddha was
referring to when he said that life is suffering; suffering is life. This
means the body and mind (five aggregates) which are clung to are
suffering. Knowledge of the source and basis of life and of suffering is
to be considered the most profound and most penetrating
knowledge, since it puts us in a position to eliminate suffering
completely. This piece of knowledge can be claimed to be unique to
Buddhism. It is not to be found in any other religion in the world.
The most efficacious way of dealing with attachment is to
recognize it whenever it is present. This applies most particularly
to
attachment to the idea of selfhood, which is the very basis of life. It
is something that comes into existence of its own accord,
establishing itself in us without our needing to be taught it. It is
present as an instinct in children and the small offspring of animals
right from
birth. Baby animals such as kittens know how to assume a
defensive attitude, as we can see when we try to approach them.
There is always that something, the "self" present in the mind,
and consequently this attachment is bound to manifest. The only
thing to
do is to rein it in as much as possible until such time as one is
well advanced in spiritual knowledge; in other words, to employ
Buddhist principles until this instinct has been overcome and
completely eliminated. As long as one is still an ordinary person, a
worldling, this instinct remains unconquered. Only the highest of
the Aryians, the Arahant, has succeeded in defeating it. We must
recognize this as a matter of no small importance; it is a major
problem common to all living creatures. If we are to be real
Buddhists, if we are to derive the full benefits from the teaching,
it is up to us to set about overcoming this misconception. The
suffering to which we are subject will diminish accordingly.
To know the truth about these things, which are of everyday
concern to us, is to be regarded as one of the greatest boons, one of
the greatest skills. Do give some thought to this matter of the four
attachments, bearing in mind that nothing whatever is worth
clinging to, that by the nature of things, nothing is worth getting or
being. That we are completely enslaved by things is simply a result
of these four kinds of attachment. It rests with us to examine and
become thoroughly familiar with the highly dangerous and toxic
nature of things. Their harmful nature is not immediately evident
as is the case with a blazing fire, weapons, or poison. They are
well disguised
as sweet, tasty, fragrant, alluring things, beautiful things,
melodious things. Coming in these forms they are bound to be
difficult to recognize and deal with. Consequently we have to make
use of this knowledge the Buddha has equipped us with. We have to
control this unskillful grasping and subdue it by the power of
insight. Doing this, we shall be in a position to organize our life in
such a way that it becomes free of suffering, free of even the
smallest trace of suffering. We shall be capable of working and
living peacefully in the world, of being undefiled, enlightened and
tranquil.
Let us sum up. These four forms of attachment are the
only problem that Buddhists or people who wish to know about
Buddhism have to understand. The objective of living a holy life
(Brahmacariya) in Buddhism is to enable the mind to give up
unskillful grasping. You can find this teaching in every discourse
in the texts which treats of the attainment of arahantship. The
expression used is "the mind freed from attachment." That is the
ultimate. When the mind is free from attachment, there is nothing
to bind it and make it a slave of the world. There is nothing to
keep it spinning on in the cycle of birth and death, so the whole
process comes to a stop, or rather, becomes world transcending,
free from the world. The giving up of unskillful clinging is, then,
the key to Buddhist practice.
THE THREEFOLD TRAINING
In this chapter we shall examine the method to be used
for eliminating clinging. The method is based on three practical
steps, namely Morality, Concentration, and Insight, known
collectively as the Threefold Training.
The first step is morality (Sila). Morality is simply
suitable behavior, behavior that conforms with the generally
accepted standards and causes no distress to other people or to
oneself. It is coded in the form of five moral precepts, or eight, or
ten, or 227, or in other ways. It is conducted by way of body and
speech aimed at peace, convenience and freedom from undesirable
effects at the most basic level. It has to do with the members of a
social group and the various pieces of property essential to living.
The second aspect of the threefold training is
concentration (Samadhi). This consists in constraining the mind to
remain in the condition most conducive to success in whatever he
wishes to
achieve. Just what is concentration? No doubt most of you have
always understood concentration as implying a completely
tranquil mind, as steady and unmoving as a log of wood. But
merely these two characteristics of being tranquil and steady
are not the real meaning of Concentration. The basis for this
statement is an utterance of the Buddha. He described the
concentrated mind as fit
for work (kammaniya), in a suitable condition for doing its job. Fit for
work is the very best way to describe the properly concentrated
mind.
The third aspect is the training in insight (Panna), the practice
and drill that gives rise to the full measure of right knowledge and
understanding of the true nature of all things. Normally we are
incapable of knowing anything at all in its true nature. Mostly we
either stick to our own ideas or go along with popular opinion, so that
what we see is not the truth at all. It is for this reason that Buddhist
practice includes this training in insight, the last aspect of the
threefold training, designed to give rise to full understanding of and
insight into the true nature of things.
In the religious context, understanding and insight are not by
any means the same. Understanding depends to some extent on the use
of reasoning, on rational intellection. Insight goes further than that.
An object known by insight has been absorbed; it has been
penetrated to and confronted face to face; the mind has become
thoroughly absorbed in it through examination and investigation so
sustained that there has arisen a non-rational but genuine and
heartfelt disenchantment with that thing and a complete lack of
emotional involvement in it. Consequently the Buddhist training in
insight does not refer to intellectual understanding of the kind
used in present day academic and scholarly circles, where each
individual can have his own particular kind of truth. Buddhist
insight must be intuitive insight clear and immediate, the result of
having penetrated to the object by one means or another, until it
has made a definite and indelible impression on the mind. For this
reason the objects of scrutiny in insight training must be things
that one comes into contact with in the course of everyday living;
or at least they must be things of sufficient importance to render
the mind genuinely fed up and disenchanted with them as transient,
unsatisfactory and not selves. However much we think rationally,
evaluating the characteristics of transience, unsatisfactoriness
and non-selfhood, nothing results but intellectual understanding.
There is no way it can give rise to disillusionment and
disenchantment with worldly things. It must be understood that the
condition of disenchantment replaces
that of desiring the formerly infatuatingly attractive object, and
that this in itself constitutes the insight. It is a fact of nature that
the presence of genuine, clear insight implies the presence of
genuine disenchantment. It is impossible that the process should
stop short at the point of clear insight. Disenchantment displaces
desire for the object, and is bound to arise immediately.
Training in morality is simply elementary preparatory practice,
which enables us to live happily and helps stabilize the mind.
Morality yields various benefits, the most important being the
preparing of the way for concentration. Other advantages, such as
conducing to happiness or to rebirth as a celestial being, were not
considered by the Buddha to be the direct aims of morality. He
regarded morality as primarily a means of inducing and developing
concentration. As long as things continue to disturb the mind, it can
never become concentrated.
Training in concentration consists in developing the ability to
control this mind of ours, to make use of it, to make it do its job to
the best advantage. Morality is good behavior in respect of body and
speech; concentration amounts to good behavior in respect of the
mind, and is the fruit of thorough mental training and discipline. The
concentrated mind is devoid of all bad, defiling thoughts and does
not wander off the object. It is in a fit condition to do its job.
Even in ordinary worldly situations, concentration is always a
necessity. No matter what we are engaged in, we can hardly do it
successfully unless the mind is concentrated. For this reason the
Buddha counted concentration as one of the marks of a great man.
Regardless of whether a man is to be successful in worldly or in
spiritual things, the faculty of concentration is absolutely
indispensable. Take even a schoolboy. If he lacks concentration,
how can he do arithmetic? The sort of concentration involved in
doing arithmetic is natural concentration and is only poorly
developed. Concentration as a basic element in Buddhist practice,
which is what we are discussing here, is concentration that has
been trained and raised to a higher pitch than can develop
naturally. Consequently, when the mind has been trained
successfully, it comes to have a great many very special
abilities, powers and attributes. A person who has managed to
derive these benefits from concentration can be said to have
moved up a step towards knowing the secrets of nature. He knows
how to control the mind, and thus has abilities not possessed by
the average person. The perfection of morality is an ordinary
human ability. Even if someone makes a display of morality, it is
never a superhuman display. On the other hand the attainment of
deep concentration was classed by the Buddha as a superhuman
ability, which the bhikkhus were never to make a display of.
Anyone who did show off this ability was considered no longer a
good bhikkhu, or even no longer a bhikkhu at all.
To attain concentration necessitates making sacrifices. We
have to put up with varying degrees of hardship, to train and
practice, until we have the degree of concentration appropriate to
our abilities. Ultimately we shall gain much better results in our
work than can the average man, simply because we have better
tools at our disposal. So do take an interest in this matter of
concentration and don't go regarding it as something foolish and
old-fashioned. It is definitely something of the greatest
importance, something worth making use of at all times, especially
nowadays when the world
seems to be spinning too fast and on the point of going up in
flames. There is far more need for concentration now than there
was in the
time of the Buddha. Don't get the idea that it is just something for the
people in temples, or for cranks.
Now we come to the connection between the training in
concentration and the training in insight. The Buddha once said that
when the mind is concentrated, it is in a position to see all things as
they really are. When the mind is concentrated and fit for work, it
will know all things in their true nature. lt. is a strange thing that the
answer to any problem a person is trying to solve is usually already
present, though concealed, in his very own mind. He is not aware of
it, because it is still only subconscious; and as long as he is set on
solving the problem, the solution will not come, simply because his
mind at that time is not in a fit condition for solving problems. If,
when setting about any mental work, a person develops right
concentration, that is, if he renders his mind fit for work, the solution
to his problem will come to light of its own accord. The moment the
mind has become concentrated, the answer will just fall into place.
But should the solution still fail to come, there exists another
method for directing the mind to the examination of the problem,
namely the practice of concentrated introspection referred to as the
training in insight. On the day of his enlightenment the Buddha
attained insight into the Law of Conditioned Origination, that is, he
came to perceive the true nature of things or the "what is what" and
the sequence in which they arise, as a result of being concentrated
in the way we have just described. The Buddha has related the story
in detail, but essentially it amounts to this: as soon as his mind was
well concentrated, it was in a position to examine the problem.
It is just when the mind is quiet and cool, in a state of well-
being, undisturbed, well concentrated and fresh, that some solution to a
persistent problem is arrived at. Insight is always dependent on
concentration though we may perhaps never have noticed the fact.
Actually the Buddha demonstrated an association even more
intimate than this between concentration and insight. He pointed
out that concentration is indispensable for insight, and insight,
indispensable for concentration at a higher intensity than occurs
naturally, requires the presence of understanding of certain
characteristics of the mind. 0ne must know in just which way
the mind has to be controlled in order that concentration may be
induced. So the more insight a person has, the higher degree of
concentration he will capable of. Likewise an increase in
concentration results in a corresponding increase in insight.
Either one of the two factors promotes the other.
Insight implies unobscured vision and consequently
disenchantment and boredom. It results in a backing away from
all the things one has formerly been madly infatuated with. If
one has
insight, yet still goes rushing after things, madly craving for
them, grasping at and clinging on to them, being infatuated with
them., then it cannot be insight in the Buddhist sense. This
stopping short and backing away is, of course, not a physical
action. One doesn't actually pick things up and hurl them away or
smash them to pieces,
nor does one go running off to live in the forest. This is not what is
meant. Here we are referring specifically to a mental stopping
short and backing away, as a result of which the mind ceases to be
a slave to things and becomes a free mind instead. This is what it
is like when desire for things has given way to disenchantment. It
isn't a matter of going and committing suicide, or going off to live
as a
hermit in the forest, or setting fire to everything. Outwardly one is
as usual, behaving quite normally with respect to things. Inwardly,
however, there is a difference. The mind is independent, free, no
longer a slave to things. This is the virtue of insight. The Buddha
called this effect Deliverance, escape from slavery to things, in
particular the things we like. Actually we are enslaved by the things
we dislike too. We are enslaved insofar as we cannot help disliking
them and are unable to remain unmoved by them. In disliking
things, we are being active, we are becoming emotional about
them. They manage to control us just as do the things we like,
affecting each of us in a different way. So the expression
"slavery to things"
refers to the reactions of liking and disliking. All this shows that
we can escape from slavery to things and become free by means of
insight. The Buddha summed up this principle very briefly by saying:
"Insight is the means by which we can purify ourselves." He did not
specify morality or concentration as the means by which we could
purify ourselves, but insight, which enables us to escape, which
liberates us from things. Not freed from things, one is impure,
tainted, infatuated, passionate. Once free, one is pure, spotless,
enlightened, tranquil. This is the fruit of insight, the condition that
results when insight has done its job completely.
Have a good look at this factor, insight, the third aspect of the
threefold training. Get to know it, and you will come to regard it as
the highest virtue. Buddhist insight is insight that results in backing
away from things by completely destroying the four kinds of
attachment. Those four attachments are ropes holding us fast;
insight is the knife that can cut those bonds and set us free. With
the four attachments gone, there is nothing left to bind us fast to
things.
Will these three modes of practice stand the test? Are they
soundly based and suitable for all in practice? Do examine them.
When you have another look at them you will see that these three
factors do not conflict with any religious doctrine at all, assuming
that the religion in question really aims at remedying the problem
of human suffering. The Buddhist teaching does not conflict with
any other religion, yet it has some things that no other religion has.
In particular it has the practice of insight, which is the superlative
technique for eliminating the four attachments. It liberates the
mind, rendering it independent and incapable of becoming bound,
enslaved, overpowered by anything whatsoever, including God in
heaven, spirits, or celestial beings. No other religion is prepared to let
the individual free himself completely, or be entirely self reliant We
must be fully aware of this principle of self-reliance, which is a key
feature of Buddhism.
As soon as we see that Buddhism has everything that any
other religion has and also several things that none of them have,
we realize that Buddhism is for everyone. Buddhism is the
universal religion. It can be put into practice by everyone, in
every age and era. People everywhere have the same problem: to
free themselves from suffering-suffering which is inherent in
birth, aging, pain and death, suffering which stems from desire,
from grasping. Everyone without exception, celestial being,
human being, or beast, has this same problem, and everyone has
the same job to do, namely to
eliminate completely the desire, the unskillful grasping which is
the root cause of that suffering. Thus Buddhism is the universal
religion.
THE THINGS WE CLING TO
What are we clinging to? What is our handhold? What we are
clinging to is the world itself. In Buddhism the word "world" has a
broader connotation than it has in ordinary usage. It refers to all
things, to the totality. It does not refer just to human beings, or
celestial beings, or gods, or beasts, or the denizens of hell, or demons,
or hungry ghosts, or titans, or any particular realm of existence at all.
What the word "world" refers to here is the whole lot taken together.
To know the world is difficult because certain levels of the world are
concealed. Most of us are familiar with only the outermost layer or
level, the level of relative truth, the level corresponding to the
intellect of the average man. For this reason Buddhism teaches us
about the world at various levels.
The Buddha had a method of instruction based on a division of
the world into a material or physical aspect and non-material or
mental aspect. He further divided up the mental world or mind into
four parts. Counting the physical and the mental together makes a
total of five components, called by the Buddha the Five
Aggregates, which together go to make up the world, in particular
living creatures and man himself. In looking at the world we shall
concentrate on the world of living creatures, in particular man,
because it is man that happens to be the problem. In man these
five components are all present together: his physical body is the
material aggregate; his mental aspect is divisible into four
aggregates, which we shall now describe.
The first of the mental aggregates is feeling (vedana), which is
of three kinds, namely pleasure or gratification, displeasure or
suffering, and a neutral kind, which is neither pleasure nor
displeasure, but which is a kind of feeling nevertheless. Under
normal conditions feelings are always present in us. Every day we
are filled with feelings. The Buddha, then, pointed out feeling as
one of the components which together go to make up the man.
The second component of mind is perception (Sanna). This is
the process of becoming aware, similar to waking up as opposed to
being sound asleep or unconscious, or dead. It refers to memory as
well as awareness of sense impressions, covering both the primary
sensation resulting from contact with an object by way of eye, ear,
nose, tongue, or body, and the recall of previous impressions. Thus
one may be directly aware of an object as black or white, long or
short, man or beast, and so on, or one may be similarly aware in
retrospect by way of memory.
The third mental aggregate is the actively thinking
component (sankhara) in an individual-thinking of doing some
thing, thinking of saying something, good thought and bad thought,
willed thinking, active thinking-this is the third mental aggregate.
The fourth component of mind is consciousness (vinnana). It is
the function of knowing the objects perceived by way of eye, ear,
nose, tongue and the general body sense, and also by way of the
mind itself.
These five aggregates constitute the site of the four kinds of
clinging explained in the fourth chapter. Turn back and read it
again,
and think it over so that you understand it properly. You will
then realize that it is these five aggregates that are the object
and handhold for our grasping and clinging. A person may grasp
at any one of these groups as being a self according to the
extent of his ignorance. For instance, a boy who carelessly
bumps into a door and
hurts himself feels he has to give the door a kick in order to
relieve his anger and pain. In other words, he is grasping at a purely
material object, namely the door, which is nothing but wood, as
being a self. This is attachment at the lowest level of all. A man
who be comes angry with his body to the point of striking it or
hitting himself on the head is grasping and clinging in the same
way. He is taking those body parts to be selves. If he is rather more
intelligent than that, he may seize on feeling, or perception or
active thinking, or consciousness, at any one of these groups as
being a self. If he is unable to distinguish them individually, he may
grasp at the whole
lot collectively as being a self, that is, take all five groups together to
be "his self."
After the physical body, the group next most likely to be clung to
as being a self is feeling pleasurable, painful, or neutral. Let us
consider the situation in which we find ourselves, entranced with
sensual pleasures, in particular delectable sensations, caught up
heart and soul in the various colors and shapes, sound, scents,
tastes and tactile objects that we perceive. Here feeling is the
pleasure and delight experienced, and it is to that very feeling of
pleasure and delight that we cling. Almost everyone clings to
feeling as being a self, because there is no one who does not like
delightful sensations, especially tactile sensations by way of the
skin. Ignorance or
delusion blinds a person to all else. He sees only the delightful object
and grasps at it as being a self; he regards that object as "mine."
Feeling, whether of pleasure or displeasure, is truly a site of
suffering. Spiritually speaking, these feelings of pleasure and
displeasure may be considered as synonymous with suffering,
because they give rise to nothing but mental torment. Pleasure
renders the mind buoyant; displeasure deflates it. Gain and loss,
happiness and sorrow, amount in effect to mental restlessness or
instability; they set the mind spinning. This is what is meant by
grasping at feeling as being a self. We should all do well to have a
closer look at this process of grasping at feeling as being a self, as
being "ours," and try to gain a proper understanding of it.
Understanding feeling as an object of clinging, the mind will be
rendered independently of it. Feeling normally has control over the
mind, luring us into situations that we regret later on. In his practical
path to perfection or arahantship, the Buddha teaches us repeatedly
to give particular attention to the examination of feeling. Many have
become arahants and broken free from suffering by means of
restricting feeling to simply an object of study.
Feeling is more likely than any of the other aggregates to serve
as a handhold for us to cling to because feeling is the primary
objective of all our striving and activity. We study industriously and
work at our jobs in order to get money. Then we go and buy things:
utensils, food, amusements, things covering the whole range from
gastronomy
to sex. And then we partake of these things with one single
objective, namely pleasurable feeling, in other words delightful
stimulation of eye, ear, nose, tongue and body. We invest all our
resources, monetary, physical, mental, simply in the expectation of
pleasurable feeling. And everyone knows well enough in his own
mind that if it weren't for the lure of pleasurable feeling, he would
never invest study, work and physical energy in the search for
money. We can
see, then, that feeling is no small matter. A knowledge and
understanding of it puts us in a position to keep it under
control, makes us sufficiently high-minded to remain above
feelings, and
enables us to carry out all our activities far better than we
otherwise could. In similar fashion even the problems that arise in a
social group have their origins in pleasurable feeling. And when we
analyze closely the clashes between nations, or between opposing
blocs, we discover that there too, both sides are just slaves to
pleasurable
feeling. A war is not fought because of adherence to a doctrine or an
ideal or anything of the sort. In point of fact, the motivation is the
anticipation of pleasurable feeling. Each side sees itself making all
sorts of gains, scooping up benefits for itself. The doctrine is just
camouflage, or at best a purely secondary motive. The most deep-
seated cause of all strife is really subservience to pleasurable feeling.
To know feeling is, then, to know an important root cause responsible
for our falling slaves to the mental defilements, to evil, to suffering.
If this is how things are in the case of human beings, the celestial
beings are no better off. They are subservient to pleasurable feeling
just as are humans, and more so, though they may suppose it to be
something better and finer, more subject to free will than is the
human variety. But even they are not free from craving and
attachment, from the fascination of delectable sensations
received by way of eye, ear, nose, tongue, body and mind. Still
higher up at the level of the gods, sensual delights necessarily
have been discarded completely; but even this does not bring
liberation from another kind of delight, the pleasure associated
with deep concentration practice. When the mind is deeply
concentrated, it experiences pleasure, a delightful sensation to
which it then becomes attached. Although this has nothing to do
with sensuality, it is pleasurable feeling nevertheless. Animals
lower down the scale than human beings are bound to fall under
the power of pleasurable feeling in much cruder ways than we do.
To know the nature of feeling, in particular to
know that feeling is not a self at all and not something to be clung to,
is, then, of very great use in life.
Perception, too, can easily be seized on as being a self or "one's
self." The average villager likes to say that when we fall asleep,
something, which he calls the "soul," departs from the body. The
body is then like a log of wood, receiving no sensation by way of
eye, ear, nose, tongue or body. As soon as that something has
returned to the body, awareness and wakefulness are restored. A
great many
people have this naive belief that perception is "the self." But, as the
Buddha taught, perception is not a self. Perception is simply
sensation and memory, that is, knowing, and is bound to be present
as long as the body continues to function normally. As soon as the
bodily functions become disrupted, that thing we call perception
changes or ceases to function. For this reason true Buddhists
refuse to accept perception as a self, though the average person
does choose
to accept it as such, clinging to it as "myself." Close examination along
Buddhist lines reveals that quite the opposite is the case. Perception
is nobody's self at all; it is simply a result of natural processes and
nothing more.
The next possible point of attachment is active thinking, intending
to do this or that, intending to get this or that, mental action good or
bad. This is once again a manifestation of the arising of strong ideas
of selfhood. Everyone feels that if any thing at all is to be identified
as his self, then it is more likely to be this thinking element than any
other. For instance, one philosopher in recent centuries had a naive
philosophy on the basis of which he proclaimed: "I think, therefore I
am." Even philosophers in this scientific age have the same ideas
about "the self" as people have had for thousands of years,
maintaining that the thinking element is the self. They regard as
the self that which they understand to be "the thinker." We have
said that the Buddha denied that either feeling or perception
might be a self. He also rejected thinking, the thinking aspect of
the mind as a self, because the activity which manifests as
thought is a purely natural event. Thought arises as a result of the
interaction of a
variety of prior events. It is just one of the aggregation of assorted
components that makes up "the individual," and no "I" or "self"
entity is involved. Hence we maintain that this thinking component
is devoid of selfhood, just as are the other aggregates we have
mentioned.
The difficulty in understanding this lies in our inadequate
knowledge of the mental element or mind. We are familiar only
with the body, the material element, and know almost nothing
about the
other, the mental, nonmaterial element. As a result, we have
difficulty understanding it. Here it can only be said that the
Buddha taught that "the individual" is a combination of the five
aggregates, physical and mental. Now, when the event we call
thinking takes place, we jump to the conclusion that there is
"someone" there who is
"the thinker." We believe there is a thinker, a soul, which is master of
the body or something of the sort. But the Buddha rejected such
entities completely. When we analyze "the individual" into these five
components, there is nothing left over, proving that he consists of
just these components and that there is nothing that might be "his
self." Not even thinking is a self as the average man commonly
supposes.
Now the last group, consciousness (vinnana) is simply the
function of becoming fully aware of objects perceived by way of eye,
ear,
nose, tongue and body. It is no self either. The organs simply take in
the color and shapes, sounds, odors, tastes and tactile objects that
impinge on them, and as a result consciousness of those objects
arises in three stages. In the case of the eye there arises clear
consciousness of the shape of the visual object, whether it is man or
beast, long or short, black or white. The arising of clear
consciousness in this way is a mechanical process which happens of
its own accord, automatically. There are some who maintain that this
is the "soul," the "spirit," which moves into and out of the mind and
receives stimuli by way of the eye, ear, nose, tongue and body, and
consider it to be "the self." Buddhists recognize it as just nature. If a
visual object and an eye complete with optic nerve make contact,
seeing will take place and there will arise visual consciousness. And
there is once again no need for any self whatsoever.
When we have analyzed the "being" into its components,
namely body, feeling, perception, thinking and consciousness, we find
no part which might be a self or belong to a self. Thus we can
completely reject the false self idea and conclude that nobody is or
has a self at all. When one ceases to cling to things, no longer liking
or disliking them, this indicates that one has perceived that those
things are not selves. Rational thinking is sufficient to convince one
that they cannot be selves; but the result is only belief, not clear
insight of the sort that can completely cut out clinging to them as
selves. For this very reason we have to study and examine the five
aggregates on the basis of the threefold training and develop
sufficient insight to be able to give up clinging to this self idea. This
practice with respect to the five aggregates serves to develop clear
insight and eliminate ignorance. When we have completely
eliminated ignorance, we shall be able to see for ourselves that none
of the aggregates is a self, none is worth clinging to. All clinging, even
the kind that has existed since birth, will then cease completely. It is
essential, then, that we study thoroughly the five aggregates, which
are the objects of the self conceit. The Buddha stressed this aspect
of his teaching more than any other. It may be summed up very
briefly
by saying: "None of the five aggregates is a self." This should be
considered a key point in Buddhism, whether one looks at it as
philosophy, as science, or as religion. When we know this truth,
ignorance-based grasping and clinging vanish, desire of any sort
has no means of arising, and suffering ceases.
Why is it, then, that we normally don't see these five
aggregates as they really are? When we were born, we had no
understanding of things. We acquired knowledge on the basis of
what people taught
us. The way they taught us led us to understand that all things are
selves. The power of the primal instinctive belief in selfhood,
which is present right from birth, becomes very strong in the
course of time. In speaking we use the words "I, you, he, she,"
which only
serve to consolidate the self idea. We say: "This is Mr. X; that is Mr. Y. He
is Mr. A's son and Mr. B's grandson. This is So - and - so's
husband; that is So - and - so's wife." This way of speaking serves
simply to identify people as selves. The result is that we are, none
of us, conscious of our clinging to selfhood, which increases daily.
When we cling to something as being a self, the result is
selfishness, and
our actions are biased accordingly. If we were to develop sufficient
insight to see this idea as a deception, we would stop clinging to
the ideas of "Mr. A and Mr. B, high class and low class, beast and
human being," and would see that these are nothing more than
terms which man has devised for use in social intercourse. When
we have come to understand this, we can be said to have dispensed
with one sort of social deception. When we examine the whole of
what goes to make
up Mr. A, we find that Mr. A is simply an aggregation of body,
feeling, perception, thinking and consciousness. This is a rather more
intelligent way of looking at things. Doing this, one is not deluded by
worldly relative truth.
It is possible to carry the process of analysis further than this. For
instance the physical body can be divided up rather crudely into the
elements of earth, water, wind and fire; or it can be analyzed
scientifically into carbon, hydrogen, oxygen and so on. The deeper we
look, the less we are deceived. Penetrating below the surface, we find
that in fact there is no person; there are only elements, physical and
mental. Looked at in this light, the "person" disappears. The idea of "Mr. A
and Mr. B, high - class and low - class" dissolves. The idea of "my child,
my husband, my wife" vanishes away. When we look at
things in the light of absolute truth, we find only elements:
earth, water, wind and fire; oxygen, hydrogen and so on; body,
feeling, perception, thinking and consciousness. On examining
these closely we find they all have one property in common,
namely emptiness.
Each is empty of what we refer to as "its self." Earth, water, wind
and fire, looked at properly, are seen to be empty of selfhood. It is
possible for each one of us to see anything and everything as empty
in this sense. This done, grasping and clinging will have no means of
arising and any already arisen will have no means of remaining.
They will dissolve, pass away, vanish entirely, not a trace
remaining. So there are no animals, no people, no elements, no
aggregates.
There are no things at all; there is only emptiness, emptiness of
selfhood. When we don't grasp and cling, there is no way suffering
can arise. One who sees all things as empty is quite unmoved when
people call him good or bad, happy or miserable, or anything. This is
the fruit of knowledge, understanding, and clear insight into the
true nature of the five aggregates which makes it possible to give
up completely those four kinds of unskillful clinging.
In summary, everything in the whole world is included within the
five aggregates, namely matter, feeling, perception, thinking and
consciousness. Each of these groups is a deception, each is quite
devoid of selfhood, but has the seductive power to induce grasping
and clinging. As a result, the ordinary person desires to possess,
desires to be, desires not to possess, desires not to be, all of
which only serves to produce suffering, suffering which is not
obvious, but concealed. It behooves every one to utilize the
threefold training in morality, concentration and insight, and
eliminate delusion with respect to the five aggregates completely
and utterly. A person who has done this will not fall under the
power of the five aggregates and will be free of suffering. For him
life will be unblemished bliss. His
mind will be above all things for as long as he lives. This is the fruit
of clear and perfect insight into the five aggregates.
INSlGHT, BY THE NATURE METHOD
In this chapter we shall see how concentration may come about
naturally on the one hand, and as a result of organized practice on the
other. The end result is identical in the two cases: the mind is
concentrated and fit to be used for carrying out close introspection.
One thing must be noticed, however: the intensity of concentration
that comes about naturally is usually sufficient and appropriate for
introspection and insight, whereas the concentration resulting from
organized training is usually excessive, more than can be made use
of. Furthermore, misguided satisfaction with that highly
developed concentration may result. While the mind is fully
concentrated, it is
likely to be experiencing such a satisfying kind of bliss and well-
being that the meditator may become attached to it, or imagine it
to be the Fruit of the Path. Naturally occurring concentration,
which is sufficient and suitable for use in introspection, is
harmless, having none of the disadvantages inherent in
concentration developed by means of intensive training.
In the Tipitaka, there are numerous references to people
attaining naturally all states of Path and Fruit. This generally came
about in the presence of the Buddha himself but also happened later
with other teachers. These people did not go into the forest and sit,
assiduously practicing concentration on certain objects in the way
described in later manuals.
Clearly no organized effort was involved when arahantship
was attained by the first five disciples of the Buddha on hearing
the Discourse on Non - selfhood, or by the one thousand hermits on
hearing the Fire Sermon. In these cases, keen, penetrating insight
came about quite naturally. These examples clearly show that
natural concentration is liable to develop of its own accord while
one is attempting to understand clearly some question, and that the
resulting insight, as long as it is firmly established must be quite
intense and stable. It happens naturally, automatically in just the
same way as the mind becomes concentrated the moment we set
about doing arithmetic. Likewise in firing a gun, when we take aim,
the mind automatically becomes concentrated and steady. This is
how naturally occurring concentration comes about. We normally
overlook it completely because it does not appear the least bit
magical, miraculous, or awe inspiring. But through the power of
just this naturally occurring concentration, most of us could
actually attain liberation. We could attain the Fruit of the Path,
Nirvana, arahantship, just by means of natural concentration.
So don't overlook this naturally occurring concentration. It is
something most of us either already have, or can readily develop.
We have to do everything we can to cultivate and develop it, to
make it function perfectly and yield the appropriate results, just
as did most of the people who succeeded in becoming arahants,
none of whom
knew anything of modern concentration techniques.
Now let us have a look at the nature of the states of inner
awareness leading up to full insight into "the world," that is, into the
five aggregates. The first stage is joy (piti), mental happiness or
spiritual well being. Doing good in some way, even giving alms,
considered the most basic form of merit-making, can be a source of
joy. Higher up, at the level of morality, completely blameless conduct
by way of word and action brings an increase in joy. Then in the case
of concentration, we discover that there is a definite kind of delight
associated with the lower stages of concentration.
This rapture has in itself the power to induce tranquillity.
Normally the mind is quite unrestrained, continually falling slave to
all sorts of thoughts and feelings associated with enticing things
outside. It is normally restless, not calm. But as spiritual joy
becomes established, calm and steadiness are bound to increase in
proportion. When steadiness has been perfected, the result is full
concentration. The mind becomes tranquil, steady, flexible,
manageable, light and at ease, ready to be used for any desired
purpose, in particular for the elimination of the defilements.
It is not a case of the mind's being rendered silent, hard and
rocklike. Nothing like that happens at all. The body feels normal, but
the mind is especially calm and suitable for use in thinking and
introspection. It is perfectly clear, perfectly cool, perfectly still and
restrained. In other words, it is fit for work, ready to know. This is the
degree of concentration to be aimed for, not the very deep
concentration where one sits rigidly like a stone image, quite devoid
of awareness. Sitting in deep concentration like that, one is in no
position to investigate anything. A deeply concentrated mind cannot
practice introspection at all. It is in a state of unawareness and is of
no use for insight. DEEP CONCENTRATION IS A MAJOR OBSTACLE TO
INSIGHT PRACTICE. To practice introspection one must first
return to the shallower levels of concentration; then one can make use of
the power the mind has acquired. Highly developed concentration
is just a tool. In this developing of insight by the nature method,
we don't
have to attain deep concentration and sit with the body rigid.
Rather, we aim at a calm, steady mind, one so fit for work that
when it is applied to insight practice, it gains right understanding
with regard to the entire world. Insight so developed is natural
insight, the same sort as was gained by some individuals while
sitting listening to the Buddha expounding Dhamma. It is conducive
to thought and introspection of the right kind, the kind that brings
understanding. And it involves neither ceremonial procedures nor
miracles.
This doesn't mean, however, that insight will arise
instantaneously. One can't be an arahant straight off. The first step in
knowledge may come about at any time, depending once again on the
intensity of the concentration. It may happen that what arises is not
true insight, because one has been practicing wrongly or has been
surrounded by too many false views. But however it turns out, the
insight that does arise is bound to be something quite special, for
instance extraordinarily clear and profound. If the knowledge gained
is right knowledge, corresponding with reality, corresponding with
Dhamma, then it will progress, developing ultimately into right and
true knowledge of all phenomena. If insight develops in only small
measure, it may convert a person into an Aryian at the lowest stage;
or if it is not sufficient to do that, it will just make him a high-
minded individual, an ordinary person of good qualities. If the
environment is suitable and good qualities have been properly and
adequately established, it is possible to become an arahant. It all
depends on the circumstances. But however far things go, as long as
the mind has natural concentration, this factor called insight is
bound to arise and to correspond more or less closely with reality.
Because we, being Buddhists, have heard about, thought about and
studied the world, the five aggregates and phenomena, in the hope of coming
to under stand their true nature, it follows that the knowledge we
acquire while in a calm and concentrated state will not be in any way
misleading. It is bound to be always beneficial.
The expression "insight into the true nature of things" refers to
seeing transience, unsatisfactoriness and non-selfhood, seeing that
nothing is worth getting, nothing is worth being, seeing that no
object whatsoever should be grasped at and clung to as being a self or
as belonging to a self, as being good or bad, attractive or repulsive.
Liking or disliking anything, even if it is only an idea or a memory, is
clinging. To say that nothing is worth getting or being is the same as
to say that nothing is worth clinging to. "Getting" refers to setting
one's heart on property, position, wealth, or any pleasing object.
"Being" refers to the awareness of one's status as husband, wife, rich
man, poor man, winner, loser, or human being, or even the
awareness of being oneself. If we really look deeply at it, even being
oneself is no fun, is wearisome, because it is a source of suffering. If
one can completely give up clinging to the idea of being oneself, then
being oneself will no longer be suffering. This is what it is to see the
worthlessness of being anything, and is the gist of the statement that
being anything, no matter what, is bound to be suffering in a way
appropriate to that particular state of being. Any state of being, if it
is to continue as such, has to be made to last, to endure. At the very
least, it must endure in one's mind in the form of a belief in that
particular state of being. When there exists "oneself," there are bound
to exist things which are other than that self and belong to it. Thus
one has one's children, one's wife, one's this, that and the other. Then
one has one's duty as husband or wife, master or servant, and
so on. All this points to the truth of the statement that there is no
state of being such that to maintain it will not involve struggle. The
trouble and struggle necessary to maintain one's state of being are
simply the result of blind infatuation with things, of clinging to
things.
If we were to give up trying to get or to be anything, how could
we continue to exist? This is bound to be a major source of
skepticism for anyone who has not given much thought to the
matter. The words "getting" and "being" as used here refer to
getting and being based on mental defilements, on craving, on the
idea of "worth getting, worth being," so that the mind does get and
be in real earnest. This is bound to lead to depression, anxiety,
distress and upset, or at least a heavy burden on the mind, right
from beginning to end. Knowing this truth, we shall be constantly
on the alert, keeping watch over the mind to see that it doesn't fall
slave to getting and being through the influence of grasping and
clinging. Aware that in reality things are just not worth getting or
being, we shall be smart enough to stay aloof from them.
If, however, we are not yet in a position to withdraw
completely from having and being, we must be mindful and wide
awake, so that when we do get or become something, we do so
without emotional upset. We must not be like those people who,
turning a blind eye and a deaf ear, go ahead brainlessly and
inexpertly getting or becoming,
with the result that they fall right into the pit of their own stupidity
and attachment, and end up having to commit suicide.
The world and all things have the property of impermanence, of
worthlessness and of not belonging to anyone. Any individual who
grasps at and clings to anything will be hurt by it, in the very
beginning when he first desires to get it or to be it, later while he is
in the process of getting it and being it, and then again after he has
got it or been it. All the time, before, during and after, when anyone
grasps and clings with deaf ear and blind eye, he will receive his full
measure of suffering, just as can be seen happening to all deluded
worldlings. It is the same even with goodness, which everyone
values highly. If anyone becomes involved with goodness in the
wrong way and clings to it too much, he will derive just as
much suffering from goodness as he would from evil. In
becoming involved with goodness, we have to bear in mind that
it possesses this property.
A skeptic may ask: "If nothing at all is worth getting or being,
does it follow that nobody ought to do any work or build up wealth,
position and property?" Anyone who comprehends this subject
can see that a person equipped with right knowledge and
understanding
is actually in a far better position to carry out any task than one
who is subject to strong desires, foolish, and lacking in
understanding. Very briefly, in becoming involved in things, we must
do so mindfully; our actions must not be motivated by craving. The
result will follow accordingly.
The Buddha and all the other arahants were completely free of
desire, yet succeeded in doing many things far more useful than
what any of us are capable of. If we look at accounts of how the
Buddha spent his day, we find that he slept for only four hours
and spent all the rest of the time working. We spend more than
four hours a day just amusing ourselves. If the defilements
responsible for the desire to be and get things had been
completely eliminated, what was the force that motivated the
Buddha and all Arahants to do all this? They were motivated by
discrimination coupled with goodwill (metta). Even actions based
on natural bodily wants such as receiving and eating alms food
were motivated by discrimination
They were free of defilements, free of all desire to keep on living in
order to be this or to get that, but they did have the ability to
discriminate between what was worthwhile and what was not as the
motivating force that sent their bodies out to find food. If they
found food, well and good; if not, never mind. When they were
suffering with fever, they knew how to treat it and did so as well as
possible on the basis of this knowledge. If the fever was quite
overpowering and they were not strong, they recalled that to die is
natural. Whether they lived or died was of no significance to them;
they were of equal value in their eyes
If one is to be completely free of suffering, this is the very
best attitude to have. There need not be any self as master of the
body. Discrimination alone enables the body to carry on by its natural
power. The example of the Buddha shows that the power of pure
discrimination and pure goodwill alone is sufficient to keep an
arahant living in the world, and, what is more, doing far more good
for others than people still subject to craving. Defiled people are
likely to do only what benefits themselves since they act out of
selfishness. By contrast, the deeds of arahants are entirely
selfless and so are perfectly pure. In desiring to get and be, one is
acting quite inappropriately, one is mistaking evil for good, not
knowing what is what. Let us all, then, go about things
intelligently, always bearing in mind that, in reality, nothing is
worth getting or being, nothing is worth becoming infatuated
with, nothing is worth clinging to. Let us act in a manner in
keeping with the knowledge that things are by their very nature
not worth getting or being. If we do have to become involved in
things, then let us go about it the right way, acting appropriately.
This is the way to keep the mind always pure, unobscured, tranquil
and cool. It allows us to become involved in the world, in things,
without doing ourselves any harm in the process.
When the ordinary worldly man hears that nothing is worth
getting or being, he is not convinced, he doesn't believe it. But
anyone who understands the real meaning of this statement
becomes emboldened and cheered by it. His mind becomes master
of things
and independent of them. He becomes capable of going after things
sure in the knowledge that he will not become enslaved by them.
His actions are not motivated by desire and he is not so blind with
passion that he comes to be a slave to things. In getting anything or
being anything, let us always be aware that we are getting or being
something which, in terms of absolute truth, we cannot get or be at
all, because there is nothing that we can really get or be as we
might wish. All things are transient and unsatisfactory and can
never belong to us; and yet we go foolishly ahead, grasping at them
and craving for them. In other words, we act inappropriately, or in
a way which does not accord with the true nature of things, simply
because we become involved in them while ignorant of their true
nature. The result is bound to be all manner of suffering and
trouble. The reason
a person is incapable of doing his job perfectly, faultlessly, is that he
is always far too concerned with getting something and being
something, always motivated entirely by his own desires. As a
result, he is not master of himself and cannot be consistently
good, honest
and fair. In every case of failure and ruin, the root cause is slavery to
desire.
To come to know the true nature of things is the true objective of
every Buddhist. It is the means by which we can liberate ourselves.
Regardless of whether we are hoping for worldly benefits, such as
wealth, position and fame; or for benefits in the next world, such as
heaven; or for the supra-mundane benefit, the Fruit of the Path,
Nirvana--whatever we are hoping for, the only way to achieve it is
by means of this right knowledge and insight. We thrive on insight.
In the Texts it is said that we may become purified through insight
and not by any other means. Our path to freedom lies in having the
insight, the clear vision, that in all things there neither is nor has
ever been anything at all that is worth grasping at or clinging to,
worth getting or being, worth risking life and limb for. We have
things and are things only in terms of worldly, relative truth. In
worldly language, we say we are this or that, just because in any
society it is expedient to recognize by names and occupations. But
we mustn't go believing that we really are this or that, as is
assumed at the level of relative truth. To do so is to behave like
the crickets, which, when their faces become covered with dirt,
become
disoriented and muddled, and proceed to bite each other until
they die. We humans, when our faces become covered in dirt,
when we are subject to all sorts of delusions, become so
bewildered and disoriented that we do things no human being
could ever do under
ordinary circumstances--killing for instance. So let us not go
blindly clinging to relative truths; rather let us be aware that they
are just relative truths, essential in a society but nothing more. We
have to be aware of what this body and mind really is, what its
true nature is. In particular, we have to be aware of its
impermanence,
unsatisfactoriness, and non-selfhood, and make sure we always
remain independent of it.
As for the wealth, position and so on, which we can't do without,
let us regard these too as relative truths so that we can break free
from the existing custom of saying, for instance: "This belongs to So
- and - so. That belongs to Such and - such." The law watches over
ownership rights for us; there is no need for us to cling to the idea of
"mine." We ought to possess things purely and simply for the sake of
convenience and ease, and not so that they can be master over our
minds. When we have this clear knowledge, things will become our
servants and slaves and we shall remain on top of them. If our
thoughts go the way of craving and attachment, so that we become
conscious of having such - and - such and being so - and - so, clinging
firmly to these ideas, things will get on top of us, and we shall be the
servants and slaves, under their control instead. The tables can quite
easily be turned in this way, so we have to be careful. We have to
arrange things in such a way that we are sure of staying independent
and on top of things. If we don't, we may find ourselves in a most
pitiable position and feel very sorry for ourselves indeed.
When we have really come to perceive clearly that nothing is
worth getting or being, disenchantment (nibbida) develops in
proportion to the intensity of the insight. It is a sign that the clinging
has become less firm and is starting to give way. It is a sign that we
have been slaves for so long that the idea of trying to escape has at last
occurred to us. This is the onset of disenchantment and disillusionment,
when one becomes fed up with one's own stupidity
in grasping at and clinging to things, believing things to be
worth having and being. As soon as disenchantment has set in,
there is bound to come about a natural, automatic process of
disentanglement
(vimutti), as if a rope with which one had been tightly bound were
being untied; or a rinsing out, as when the dye that had been firmly
fixed in a piece of cloth is washed out by soaking it in the
appropriate substances. This process whereby clinging gives way to
a breaking free from, or a dissolving out from the world, or from the
objects of that clinging, was called by the Buddha, emancipation
(vimutti). This state is most important. Though not the final stage,
it is a most important step towards complete liberation. When one
has broken free to this extent, complete liberation from suffering is
assured.
Once broken free from slavery, one need never again be a slave
to the world. One becomes pure and uncontaminated whereas
previously one was defiled in every way. To be enslaved to things is
to be defiled in body, speech and thought. To break free from slavery
to the delightful tastes of the world is to achieve the pure condition
and never be defiled again. This real purity (Visuddhi), once it has
been attained, will give rise to a genuine calm and coolness free
from all turbulence, strife and torment. This state of freedom from
oppression and turbulence was called by the Buddha simply peace
(Santi), that is, stillness, coolness in all situations, which is virtually
the same thing as Nirvana.
"Nirvana" has been translated as "absence of any instrument of
torture." Taken another way, it means "extinction without
remainder." So the word "Nirvana" has two very important
meanings; firstly, absence of any source of torment and burning,
freedom from all forms of bondage and constraint and secondly,
extinction, with no fuel for the further arising of suffering. The
combination of these meanings indicates a condition of complete
freedom from suffering. There are several other useful meanings
for the word "Nirvana." It can be taken to mean the extinction of
suffering, or the complete
elimination of defilements, or the state, realm, or condition that is
the cessation of all suffering, all defilements and all karmic activity.
Though the word "Nirvana" is used by numerous different sects, the
sense in which they use it is often not the same at all. For instance,
one group takes it to mean simply calm and coolness, because they
identify Nirvana with deep concentration. Other groups even
consider total absorption in sensuality as
Nirvana.
The Buddha defined Nirvana as simply that
condition of freedom from bondage, torment and suffering
which results from
seeing the true nature of the worldly condition and all things, and so
being able to give up all clinging to them. It is essential, then, that we
recognize the very great value of insight into the true nature of
things and endeavor to cultivate this insight by one means or
another. Using one method, we simply encourage it to come about
of its own accord, naturally, by developing, day and night, the joy
that results from mental purity, until the qualities we have
described gradually come about. The other method consists in
developing mental power by following an organized system of
concentration and
insight practice. This latter technique is appropriate for people with
a certain kind of disposition, who may make rapid progress with it if
conditions are right. But we can practice the development of insight
by the nature method in all circumstances and at all times just by
making our own way of daily living so pure and honest that there
arise in succession spiritual joy (piti and pamoda), calm
(passaddhi), insight into the true nature of things
(yathabhutananadassana), disenchantment (nibbida), withdrawal
(viraga), escape (vimutti), purification from defilements (visuddhi),
and coolness (santi), so that we come to get a taste of freedom from
suffering (nibbana)-
steadily, naturally, day by day, month by month, year by year,
gradually approaching closer and closer to Nirvana.
Summing up, natural concentration and insight, which enable
a person to attain the Path and the Fruit, consist in verifying all
day and every day the truth of the statement that nothing is worth
getting or being. Anyone who wishes to get this result must strive
to purify himself and to develop exemplary personal qualities, so
that
he can find perpetual spiritual joy in work and leisure. That very joy
induces clarity and freshness, mental calm and stillness, and serves,
naturally and automatically, to give the mind ability to think and
introspect. With the insight that nothing is worth getting or being
constantly present, the mind loses all desire for the things it once
used to grasp at and cling to. It is able to break free from the things
it used to regard as "me and mine," and all blind craving for things
ceases. Suffering, which no longer has anywhere to lodge, dwindles
right away, and the job of eliminating suffering is done. This is the
reward, and it can be gained by anyone of us.
INSIGHT, BY ORGANIZED TRAINING
Now we shall deal with the organized systems of insight training,
which were not taught by the Buddha but were developed by later
teachers. This kind of practice is suitable for people at a fairly
undeveloped stage, who still cannot perceive the unsatisfactoriness
of worldly existence with their own eyes, naturally. This doesn't
mean, however, that the results obtained by these systems have any
special qualities not obtainable by the nature method, because when
we examine the Tipitaka closely, we find the nature method is the
only one mentioned. Some people consider, however, that natural
insight can be developed only by someone who has become so
remarkably virtuous, or has such a suitable disposition, that for him
to come to a full understanding of things is just child's play. What is
a person to do who lacks transcendent virtues and the appropriate
disposition? For such people, teachers laid down ordered systems of
practice, concise courses which start from scratch and have to be
followed through thoroughly and systematically.
These systems of practice for developing insight are now known
by the technical term "Vipassana - dhura." Vipassana - dhura
is contrasted with Study (Gantha - dhura), the two being
considered nowadays complementary aspects of training.
Vipassana- dhura is
study done within; it is strictly mental training, having nothing to
do with textbooks. Neither the term Study (Gantha - dhura) nor
Vipassana - dhura is mentioned in the Tipitaka, both appearing
only in later books; but Vipassana - dhura is nevertheless a
genuine
Buddhist practice, designed for people intent on eliminating
suffering. It is based directly on sustained, concentrated
introspection. In order to explain Vipassana to people, teachers
in former ages considered it in terms of the following
questions:
What is the basis, the foundation of Vipassana?
What are the characteristics by which we may know
that this is Vipassana?
Just what is the activity called Vipassana?
What should be the ultimate result of Vipassana?
Asked what is the basis, the foundation of Vipassana, we
answer: morality and concentration. "Vipassana" means "clear
insight," and refers to the unobscured vision that may arise when
a person's mind is full of joy and devoid of any defilement. Joy
develops when there is Moral Purity (Sila visuddhi); morality is a
prerequisite. This is stated in the texts (Rathavinitasutta,
Majjhima - nikaya, 24), where
the practice is described as proceeding in a series of stages called
the Seven Purifications, and culminating in the Path and the Fruit.
Teachers regard the attainment of Moral Purity as the first of the
Seven Purifications. It consists of faultless behavior and is
prerequisite to purification of the mind (Citta - visuddhi).
Purification of the mind, achieved when the mind has been rendered
free of any contamination, is conducive to Purification
of Views (Ditthi- visuddhi) or freedom from misunderstanding.
Freedom from misunderstanding leads to purity by freedom
from doubt (Kankhavitarana- visuddhi), and this conduces in its
turn to the arising of purity by knowledge and vision of what is
the true path to be followed and what is not the path (Magga -
magga - Nanadassana - visuddhi). This knowledge of the path to
be followed
leads to the purity by knowledge and vision of the progress along the
path Patipada - Nanadassana visuddhi). This finally leads to the last
stage of full intuitive insight or purity of knowledge and vision
(Nanadassana - visuddhi), which is the perfection of the very Noble
Path. Because the Fruit of the Path arises automatically once the
Path is established, the attainment of the Path is regarded as the
culmination of the practice.
Moral purity is faultless behavior by way of body and speech.
As long as any imperfection in body or speech remains, morality in
the true sense is lacking. When it has been perfected, that is, when
tranquillity of bodily activities and speech has been achieved, the
result is bound to be mental tranquillity, conducive in its turn to the
further stages of purification: freedom from misunderstanding,
freedom from doubt, knowledge as to what is the Path to be followed
and what is not, knowledge and vision of the progress along the Path
and finally full intuitive insight. These last five stages constitute
vipassana proper. Purification of conduct and mind are merely the
entrance into the path of vipassana.
THE SEVEN PURIFICATIONS,
THE FIVE STAGES IN VIPASSANA,
AND
THE NINE STEPS IN THE PERFECTION OF KNOWLEDGE
I Moral purity
II Mental purity
III(1) Freedom from false views
IV (2) Freedom from doubt
V (3) Knowledge and vision of what is the true Path
VI (4) Knowledge and vision of the progress along the Path
(a) Knowledge of arising and passing away
(b) Knowledge of passing away
(c) Awareness of fearsomeness
(d) Awareness of danger
(e) Disenchantment
(f) Desire for freedom
(g) Struggle to escape
(h) Imperturbability
(i) Readiness to perceive the Four Noble Truths
VII (5) Full Intuitive Insight
The Purification consisting of freedom from
misunderstanding implies the elimination of all false views, both
inborn and acquired. It covers the whole range from irrational
belief in magic to false ideas as to the true nature of things-for
instance, regarding this body and mind as something enduring,
something worthwhile, a self; seeing it as animal, human being,
celestial being, or god, or as
something magical or sacred; failing to perceive that it consists of
just the four elements, or of just body plus mind, and regarding it
instead as a self, as possessing a soul or spirit, which enters and
leaves it; failing to see it as consisting of the five aggregates: body,
feeling, perception, active thinking and consciousness; failing to see it
as just a mass of perceptions received by way of the eye, ear, nose,
tongue, body and mind. False views lead to belief in magic and sacred
objects, and so give rise to fear. Rites and rituals are then performed
to neutralize the fear, and the end result is firm attachment to rites
and rituals-all on account of false views. Such a situation indicates
views that are not as yet faultless. To have given up false views is to
have attained what was originally called the third Purification, and
what later teachers classed the first stage in vipassana.
The Purification consisting of freedom from doubt is brought
about by introspection into causes. With freedom from false views,
one sees oneself as just body plus mind. Freedom from doubt
consists in perceiving the nature of the causes responsible for the
coming into existence of the body-mind complex. One sees
penetratingly and in
fine detail the coming into existence and the interaction of
ignorance, desire, grasping and clinging karma, "nutriment," and so
on, to form body and mind. Freedom from doubt results simply from
this clear knowledge of the causes and effects of all things. In the
vipassana system, teachers recognize twenty or thirty kinds of
doubt, but summed up they all amount to doubt as to whether or not
"one's self"
exists, whether or not "one's self" existed previously, whether or
not "one's self" will continue to exist in the future and, if so, in
what form. The only way doubt can be completely dispelled is to
realize that there is no "I," but only elements, aggregates, a
nervous system together with such causes as ignorance, craving
and attachment, karma, "nutriment," and so on. Because no real "I"
is involved at all,
one starts giving up the foolish idea: "I am, I have been, I shall be."
With the complete eradication of doubt, the second stage in
vipassana has been achieved. This does not mean that the "I"-
conceit has been given up for good and all; fine vestiges are still
present. Adequate understanding of the mode of interaction of
causes has resulted in the dispelling of doubt and has made it
possible to give up the idea of "I" in its grossest forms.
When doubt has been transcended, it becomes possible to
bring about the Purification consisting of perfect knowledge as
to what is
the right path to follow and what is not. There exist several
obstacles to this further progress, which usually arise in the course
of vipassana practice. While the mind is in a concentrated state,
there are likely to arise various strange phenomena with which the
meditator may become overawed, such as wonderful impressive
auras seen in the mind's eye (the physical eyes being shut). If
these effects are purposely encouraged, they can become highly
developed;
and if the meditator jumps to the conclusion that "this is the Fruit
of vipassana practice," or congratulates himself saying, "This is
something supernatural; this will do me!" and the like, the arising of
these phenomena is liable to bar the way to the true Path and Fruit.
Consequently, teachers consider it a side track, a blind alley.
Another example is the arising of feelings of joy and contentment
which continually overflow the mind to such an extent that it
becomes incapable of any further introspection, or jumps to the
conclusion that "this is Nirvana, right here and now," so that the way
becomes blocked and further progress is impossible. This is another
obstruction to insight. Teachers say, furthermore, that even insight
into the nature of body and mind may sometimes lead to self
satisfaction and the delusion that the meditator has a remarkable
degree of spiritual insight, so that he becomes overconfident. This
too is an obstacle to progress in vipassana. Occasionally the
meditator may make use of the mental power he has developed to
make his
body go rigid, with the result that he loses the awareness necessary
for further introspection. This is a stubborn obstacle in the path to
further progress, yet meditators usually approve of it, regarding it as
a supernatural faculty, or even as the Fruit of the Path. Anyone who
becomes so pleased with and infatuated by the attainment of deep
concentration, this sitting with body rigid and devoid of all
sensation, that he is unable to progress further in vipassana, is in a
most pitiable position.
Another condition that may very easily come about is a blissful
rapture the like of which the meditator has never encountered
before. Once arisen it induces wonder and amazement and
unjustified self satisfaction. While the rapture lasts, he body and
the mind experience extreme bliss and all problems vanish. Things
that formerly were liked or disliked are liked or disliked no longer
when recalled to mind. Things the meditator had formerly feared and
dreaded or worried and fretted over no longer induce those
reactions, so that he gets the false idea that he has already attained
liberation, freedom from all defilements; because for as long as he
is in that condition he has all the characteristics of a genuinely
perfected individual. Should satisfaction arise with respect to this
condition, it acts as an obstacle to further progress in vipassana.
And in time the condition will fade away so that things formerly
liked or disliked will be liked or disliked again just as before, or
even more so.
Yet another kind of obstacle involves faith. Faith or confidence
never felt before becomes firmly established, for example
confidence in the Threefold Gem, Buddha, Dhamma and Sangha, or in
theories
the meditator thinks out for himself. There may even come
about a most intense satisfaction in Dhamma. The ability to
remain unmoved by anything becomes so strongly developed
that it may even delude
the meditator into believing he has already attained the Fruit of the
Path and Nirvana itself. These things are a great difficulty for
anyone encountering them for the first time. As you can see they
constitute a barrier in the way of vipassana. The meditator,
however, is likely to regard them as highly desirable until such time
as he develops the unobscured knowledge that these things are in
fact obstacles and succeeds in cutting out these finer defilements
completely. This knowledge of what is the right path and what is not
constitutes the third stage in vipassana and the fifth Purification.
Until such time as the aspirant has developed this knowledge of
what really constitutes the right path, he has to be always steering
himself away from the various side tracks. Once this knowledge of
the path to be followed has become fully established, however,
any further knowledge will automatically develop along the right
line. It will progress step by step, bringing perfectly clear
understanding of the true nature of things and ultimately perfect
freedom from, and non-involvement in things. The mind, equipped
with this right
understanding, is all set to attain insight into the Four Noble Truths,
and is said to have attained the Purity by Knowledge and Vision of
the progress along the Path. This is counted as the fourth stage in
vipassana and the sixth Purification. The Tipitaka contains no
detailed explanation of the stages in this Knowledge and Vision of the
progress along the Path, but later teachers recognized in it nine steps,
as follows:
a) Vipassana has progressed properly, and the birth, aging, pain and
death of phenomena have been thoroughly scrutinized. The arising
and passing away of phenomena has been perceived in all clarity. All
phenomenal existence is seen to consist of just an endless process of
arising and ceasing like the glittering dazzle on the surface of the sea,
or like the forming and bursting of the foamy crests of waves. This is
known as knowledge of arising and passing away
(Udayabbayanupassana - nana). It is brought about by
concentrated introspection so clear, and sustained for so long
a time that the knowledge becomes firmly established, like a
dye absorbed by the mind, powerful enough to make the
meditator become disenchanted
with things and give up clinging to them. This is the first step in the
Knowledge and Vision of the Progress along the Path.
b) Arising and passing away, if observed simultaneously, cannot be
perceived with such clarity as they can if either one is concentrated
on separately. At this stage, the meditator gives up watching one of
the two, namely arising, and concentrates exclusively on the passing
away. This permits him to see the process of disintegration and
decay in such depth and intensity that he comes to realize that decay
and perishing are universally evident no matter where in the world
one looks. A mind dwelling in this knowledge is said to be equipped
with knowledge of decay and dissolution (Bhanganupassana - nana).
This is the second step in the developing of knowledge.
c) Knowledge of decay and dissolution, when sufficiently well
developed, gives rise next to the awareness that all things are to be
feared. All phenomenal existence, whether in the sensual realm, in
the form realm, or in the formless realm, is seen as inherently
fearsome. All spheres of existence are seen as thoroughly fearsome
because the decay and dissolution of all phenomena is perceived in
every conscious moment. Thus an intense apprehension arises in the
mind of one possessing this awareness and becomes established as a
genuine fear. This awareness sees nothing but fearsomeness, like
poison, or deadly weapons, or vicious armed bandits, completely
filling the three spheres of phenomenal existence-nothing but
fearsomeness. This awareness of the fearsomeness
(Bhayatupatthana-nana) of all phenomenal existence is reckoned as the third step.
d) When awareness of the completely fearsome nature of all
phenomenal existence has been fully developed, there will arise
in its turn awareness that all things are inherently dangerous.
To become involved in things is not safe. They are like a forest full of
dangerous beasts, and anyone seeking diversion in the forest finds
nothing pleasing there. This awareness of the danger (Adinavan-
upassana - nana) inherent in all phenomenal existence is the fourth
step.
e) When all things are seen to be in every way full of danger this
gives rise to disenchantment. Things are seen as resembling a
burntout house of which nothing remains but ashes and a skeleton,
utterly unattractive. This disenchantment (Nibbidanupassanaa -
nana) with having to be associated with conditioned things is the
fifth step in the developing of knowledge.
f) When genuine disenchantment has become established, there
arises a desire to become really free from those things. This is
quite unlike our ordinary desire for freedom, which, lacking the
power of
concentration or insight to boost it up, is not real desire for freedom.
The disenchantment arising out of vipassana insight involves the
entire mind; and the desire for freedom is as great as the
disenchantment, so is very real and genuine. This desire to escape
from the unsatisfactoriness of phenomenal existence is as great as
the desire for freedom a frog struggling to escape from a snake's
jaws, or the desire for freedom of a deer or bird struggling to
break loose from a snare. This real desire to escape
(Muncitukamyata - nana) from unsatisfactoriness is the sixth
step.
g) Now with the full development of the desire to escape, there
arises a feeling of an intense struggling to find a way out, an ever-
present feeling that, phenomenal existence being as it is, one has
to escape from it. Introspecting, one perceives the clinging and one
perceives the defilements that are the cause of the mind's bondage,
the fetters binding it securely to that condition. Consequently one
seeks for ways of weakening the defilements. Then seeing the
defilements weakened, one sets about destroying them completely.
This weakening of the defilements is illustrated by means
of a simile. A man goes to his fish trap and pulls out a snake thinking
it to be a fish. When told it is a snake, he doesn't believe it, at least
not until he meets a wise, benevolent and sympathetic teacher, who
guides and instructs him so that he comes to realize that it is in fact a
snake. He then becomes afraid and searches about for a means of
killing it. He grabs the snake by the neck and, lifting it above his
head, swings it in a circle until it is worn out and falls down dead.
This simile illustrates the arising of the knowledge that the
defilements are the cause of people's bondage to a condition much
to be feared and dreaded.
If one has no technique for reducing the force of the
defilements day by day, eradicating them is bound to be impossible.
The power
of the defilements far exceeds that of the still meager knowledge
to be used in destroying them; hence knowledge must be developed
and increased, and the suffering produced by the defilements will
simultaneously diminish. Always maintaining and developing the
knowledge that all things are transient, worthless and devoid of
selfhood, that they are not worth getting or being, serves to cut off
the food supply to the defilements, weakening them day by day. It
behooves us to build ourselves up, develop, become more skillful
and ingenious. By this means, we can conquer defilements the size
of mountains, small though we may be. Our situation can be
compared
to that of a small mouse faced with the job of killing several
tigers. We have to be really steadfast and always on the lookout for
means appropriate to a small mouse. If we get nowhere, we must
use all sorts of devices and techniques to weaken those tigers day
by day
rather than trying to kill them outright. This intense search for a
way of escape (Patisankhanupassana - nana) constitutes the seventh
step in the Knowledge and Vision of the Progress along the Path.
h) This weakening of the defilements serves to make us
progressively more and more independent of and oblivious to
things. So this next step in the developing of right
understanding, which results in imperturbability with respect
to all things, consists in seeing all phenomena as empty, as
devoid of essence, as devoid of status such as "animal" or
"person," devoid of substance or real permanence, devoid of
worth because they are thoroughly unsatisfactory, and devoid of
all attraction because they are thoroughly disenchanting.
Ultimately the mind becomes independent of and unperturbed by
anything in any realm of existence. Things
formerly likable, desirable and infatuating, come to be seen as
lumps of rock and earth.
This too has been explained by means of a simile. A man
who has always loved a certain woman may one day experience a
change
of heart and stop loving her. For instance, he will stop loving his wife
if she is unfaithful. Once divorced, however, he is free to go ahead and
do as he pleases; his mind can be unperturbed. And at this level of
knowledge, conditions hitherto delightful, each in its own way, are
recognized as devoid of substance, so that one can be independent of
them and unperturbed by them in all circumstances, just like the
man who becomes independent on divorcing his wife. This
indifference to all phenomena (Sankharupekkha - nana)
is the
eighth step.
i) The mind thus independent of and unmoved by all phenomenal
existence is ready to perfect the Path and know the Four Noble
Truths (Saccanulomika - nana). At this stage one is all set to
overcome the defilements, to break the fetters binding one to
the world, and become an Aryian of one degree or another. This
is the ninth step in the process of Knowledge and Vision of the
Progress along the Path.
When this stepwise developing of knowledge, from
knowledge of
arising and passing away up to the state of readiness to perceive
the Four Noble Truths, has been carried through to completion, one
is said to have achieved the fourth state in vipassana, or the sixth
Purification. The pure and perfect knowledge it yields is an
instrument that reveals to the meditator the path by which he has
come, and can lead on to the perfect intuitive insight that will
destroy the defilements.
This perfect intuitive insight, or Purity of Knowledge and Vision,
the seventh Purification, is the insight that arises out of the perfected
Path. It is the goal, the Fruit of vipassana practice. This insight that
arises out of the perfected Path is the fifth and final stage in
vipassana.
In between the state of readiness to perceive the Noble Truths
and this perfect intuitive insight comes "qualifying" knowledge
(Gotrabhu - nana), which marks the point of transition from the
ordinary defiled individual to the Aryian. But this qualifying knowledge
lasts only an instant. It is the culmination of the progressive
perfection of knowledge and is still at the level of good karma, still in
the sensual realm.
To sum up, then, vipassana has as its foundation morality and
concentration. What do we examine? The answer is: We examine all
things, or to use other terms, the world, or phenomenal existence, or
conditioned things, or the five aggregates, since all phenomenal
existence consists of nothing apart from the five aggregates. What do
we aim at seeing as a result of this scrutiny? We aim at seeing the
transience, the unsatisfactoriness, the non-selfhood inherent in all
things in the world. We observe them arising, persisting and ceasing
until we come to perceive them as absolutely fearsome and
disenchanting, and realize that nothing is worth getting or being. These
are the conditions that ought to arise in vipassana practice. What is
the objective of vipassana? The immediate objective of vipassana is
to reduce delusion, the meaning of "vipassana" being "clear vision."
What is the fruit of vipassana? The fruit is the arising of clear
intuitive insight, clear and enduring insight into the nature of all
things, which ultimately will reduce the defilements to nothing. With
the defilements gone, there is just perfection, enlightenment, peace.
Nothing remains to bind the mind to any worldly condition. As
a result, there comes about a slipping free from the world, this
place of slavery to sensuality. The mind is freed of suffering
because it's freed for good of all craving or desire. The Buddha
called this the attainment of the cessation of suffering, the
attainment of the Fruit of the Path, Nirvana. To have achieved this
is to have carried out to completion the task Buddhism has set for
us.
This shows us the path of insight that has to be walked. There
are seven stages of Purification which must be integrated in this
way, and nine steps in the process of developing knowledge of the
world. These taken together are known as vipassana. In the Texts it
is set out as an ordered system. The finer details can be found in
the books written by later teachers. There is one important thing
that must be realized, however, in order to avoid misunderstanding.
It so happens that even in the field of Dhamma practice, the highest
aspect of Buddhism, there are misguided people. At the present
time there are many who have got hold of things that are not
vipassana at all and are presenting them as being the real thing.
They have made vipassana practice their means of livelihood. They
win people over in
order to get classes together, then proceed to certify them as
noble ones (Ariyapuggala), modern style, all of which is most
despicable and regrettable.
EMANCIPATION FROM THE WORLD
Vipassana meditation is mental training aimed at raising the
mind to such a level that it is no longer subject to suffering. The
mind breaks free from suffering by virtue of the clear knowledge
that nothing is worth grasping at or clinging to. This knowledge
deprives worldly things of their ability to lead the mind into
further thoughtless liking or disliking. Having this knowledge, the
mind transcends the worldly condition and attains the level known
as the Supramundane Plane (Lokuttara-bhumi).
In order to comprehend clearly the supramundane plane, we
have to know first about its opposite, the mundane plane
(Lokiyabhumi). The mundane plane comprises those levels at
which the things of the world have control over the mind. Very
briefly, three levels are recognized in the mundane plane,
namely: the sensual level (Kamavacara-bhumi), or the level of a
mind still content with pleasures of every kind; the level of
forms (Rupavacara-bhumi), the condition of a mind uninterested
in sensual objects, but finding
satisfaction in the various stages of concentration on forms as
objects; and lastly the formless level (Arupavacara-bhumi), the yet
higher level of a mind finding satisfaction in the bliss and peace of
concentration on objects other than forms. These three levels in the
worldly plane are the mental levels of beings in general. Regardless
of whether we presume to call them human beings, celestial beings,
gods, beasts, or denizens of hell, they are all included within the
three worldly levels. The mind of a worldling can at any particular
time exist in any one of these three. It is not impossible. It is quite
normal. As a rule, though, it will tend to fall back naturally to the
unconcentrated sensual level; the human mind normally falls under
the influence of the delightful in colors and shapes, sounds, odors,
tastes and tactile objects. Only on certain occasions is it able to escape
from the influence of these seductive things and experience the
tranquillity and bliss which comes from practicing concentration on
forms or other objects. It all depends on concentration.
At certain times, then, a person's mind may be located in any of
these levels of concentration. In India at the time of the Buddha this
must have been fairly common, because people who had gone in
search of the tranquillity and bliss associated with the various
levels of concentration were to be found living in forests all over
the country. At the present time such people are few, but it is
nevertheless possible for the ordinary man to attain these levels. If
someone in this world is in the process of experiencing the bliss of
full concentration on a form, then for him "the world" consists of
just that form, because he is aware of nothing else. At that time and
for that person, "the world" is equivalent to just that one form, and
it remains so until such time as his mental condition changes.
Even though a person dwelling in any of these three levels may
have gained such bliss and calm tranquillity that he has come to
resemble a rock, a lump of earth, or a log of wood, yet grasping and
clinging to selfhood are still present. Also present are various kinds
of desire, albeit of the finest and most tenuous sort, such as
dissatisfaction with the state in which he finds himself, which
prompts him to go in search of a new state. That desire for change
constitutes karma, so such a person has not yet transcended the
worldly state. He is not yet in the supramundane plane.
A mind dwelling in the supramundane plane has transcended the
world. It views the worldly state as devoid of essence, self, or
substance, and will have nothing of it. Dwellers in this
supramundane plane can be further classified into grades. There
are four levels of Path and Fruit, namely the levels of the Stream
- enterer
(Sotapanna), the Once - returner(Skidagami), the Never - returner
(Anagami), and the completely Perfected individual or Arahant.
The condition of these four kinds of noble individuals or Aryians
is the supramundane condition. "Supramundane" means "above the
world," and refers to the mind, not the body. The body can be
anywhere at
all as long as living conditions are adequate. "Supramundane" simply
describes a mind dwelling above the world. As for the nether worlds
such as hell, purgatory, or the places of suffering, torment and
bondage, these are out of the question for the Aryians.
The criteria for recognizing these four levels in the
supramundane plane are the various mental impurities which are in
the course of being eliminated. The Buddha divided the impurities in
this group into ten kinds. He called them the Fetters (Samyojana).
These ten fetters bind man and all beings to the world, keeping
people in the mundane plane. If a person starts to cut through these
fetters and break loose, his mind gradually and progressively
becomes freed
from the worldly condition; and when he manages to cut through
them completely, his mind becomes completely free, transcends
the world for good and comes to dwell permanently in the
supramundane plane.
Of these ten kinds of subtle mental impurities that bind us,
the first is the Self belief (Sakkaya-ditthi), the view that the
body and mind is "my self." It is a misunderstanding or
misconception based on clinging to the idea "I am." Because the
average person is not aware of the true nature of the body and the
mind, he unthinkingly
regards these two as his "self." He assumes that body and mind is his
"self," his "I." This instinctive idea that there is an "I" and a "mine" is so
firmly ingrained that normally nobody ever doubts their
existence. True, the self instinct is what makes life possible, being the
basis of self preservation, the search for food and propagation of the
species, but in this case, what we are calling the self belief is to be
taken only in its most basic sense as the root cause of selfishness.
This is considered to be the first of the fetters, to be done away
with before anything else.
The second fetter is Doubt (Vicikiccha), the cause of wavering
and uncertainty. Most importantly it is doubt concerning the practice
leading to liberation from suffering-doubt due to inadequate
knowledge, doubt as to what this subject is really all about, doubt
as to whether this practice for breaking free from suffering is
really the right thing for one, whether one is really capable of
carrying it through, whether it is really better than other things,
whether or not it really does any good, whether the Buddha really did
attain enlightenment, whether he really did achieve liberation from
suffering, whether the Buddha's teaching and the practical method
based on his teaching really do lead to liberation from suffering,
whether it is really possible for a bhikkhu in the Sangha to attain
liberation from suffering.
The root cause of hesitancy is ignorance. A fish that has
always lived in the water, if told about life on dry land, would be
sure to believe none of it, or at most only half of it. We, immersed
as we are in sensuality, are as habituated to sensuality as is the
fish to water, so that when someone speaks of transcending
sensuality,
transcending the world, we can't under stand. And that which we
can understand to some extent we are hesitant about. It is natural
for us to think on this lower level; to think on the high level
produces a new picture. The conflict between the high level
thinking and the low level thinking is what constitutes wavering.
If mental energy is insufficient, the low level thinking will
triumph. Doubt and wavering with regard to goodness is something
chronically present in everyone right from birth. In a person who
has been brought up wrongly, it may be a very common complaint.
We have to introspect and note
the bad consequences of this wavering, which is present to such
an extent in our work and our everyday living that we become
skeptical about goodness, truth and liberation from suffering.
The third fetter is Superstition (Silabbatapraramasa) or
attachment to rules and rituals based on a misunderstanding
of their real purpose. Essentially it is a misguided attachment to
certain things one does. Usually it has to do with doctrines and
ceremonies. An example of this is belief in magic and magical
practices, which is blatantly just superstition and occurs even
among Buddhists. Practice based on the belief that it will produce
magical abilities, psychic powers and protective forces is founded
on false hopes and is irrational. Another example is the undertaking
of moral precepts (Five Precepts, etc.) or virtuous conduct. The real
purpose of this is to eliminate mental defilements; but if we believe
that it will give rise to miraculous powers which we shall then be
able to use to eradicate the defilements, we are in fact grasping and
clinging, and so defeating our original purpose. The practice is quite
correct in itself, but if we misunderstand it and cling to it
irrationally, regarding it as something magical or sacred, then it
becomes pure superstition. Even taking upon oneself the moral
precepts, if done in
the belief that it will lead to rebirth as a celestial being, is without a
doubt an example of attachment to rules and rituals and goes
contrary to Buddhist aims. Such beliefs contaminate otherwise
virtuous conduct. The objective of the Buddhist discipline is the
elimination of the cruder defilements of body and speech as a
foundation for the progressive development of concentration
and insight. The objective is not rebirth in heaven. To have such
false motives is to soil and contaminate one's own morals with
grasping and clinging, with false ideas. Charity, or adherence to
moral
precepts, or meditation practice, if carried out with a mistaken
idea of their true objective. inevitably will stray from the
Buddhist path.
Do understand that even Buddhist practice associated
with
misunderstanding because craving has come in and taken over,
bringing the expectation of mystical powers, becomes
superstition instead. This applies to even the very small and
trivial things that most of us like to indulge in, such as ritual
chanting, merit making
and the like. The ceremony of placing rice and trays of sweets before
the Buddha's image, if performed in the belief that it is an offering to
the Buddha's "spirit" and that he will be able to partake of it, is 100
percent certain to produce effects precisely the opposite of what the
devotee is hoping for. Behavior that defeats its own true purpose is
generally quite common in Buddhist circles. It is foolish and
irrational and results in practices originally worthwhile and
attractive becoming contaminated with the stupidity and ignorance
of the people performing them. This is what is meant by
superstition. As we can see, this defilement has its origins in
delusion and misunderstanding. Most of us have our own ingrown
beliefs in mystical powers as a result of having been misinformed
and led astray by others. We need not go into any more detail here;
but though it may be rather disturbing, everyone ought to do some
critical self-examination along these lines.
When these first three defilements, namely self belief, doubt
and superstition, have been completely given up, one is said to have
attained the lowest level in the supramundane plane, that is, to
have become a Stream enterer. To give up completely these three
defilements is not difficult at all, because they are just primitive
qualities possessed by primitive, under-developed people. In anyone
who has studied well and made progress, these three elements
should not be present; and if they are, then that person's mind
should be considered still primitive. Anyone ought to be able to
give up these three defilements and become an Aryian. If he can't
he is still a foolish and deluded person, or, to use the best term, a
worldling (Puthujjana), someone with a thick blindfold covering
the eye of insight .
When any individual has managed to give up these defilements,
his mind is freed from bondage to the world. These three are
ignorance and delusion obscuring the truth and are fetters binding
the mind to the world. Giving them up is like rendering ineffective
three kinds of bondage or three blind folds, then slipping free and
rising above and beyond the world, into the first supramundane
level. This is what it is to become an Aryian of the first degree,
to attain the first level in the supramundane plane. Such an
individual
is called a "Stream - enterer," one who has attained for the first
time the Stream that flows on to Nirvana. In other words an
individual at this stage is certain to attain Nirvana at some time in
the future. What he has attained is only the Stream of Nirvana, not
Nirvana
itself. This Stream is a course that flows right on to Nirvana, inclining
towards Nirvana just as the water-course of a river slopes down
towards the sea. Though it may still take some time, a mind which
has once entered the Stream is certain to achieve Nirvana
eventually.
Attaining the second level in the supramundane plane implies
giving up the three fetters just mentioned, and further, being able
to attenuate certain types of craving, aversion and delusion to such
a degree that the mind becomes elevated and only very feebly
attached to sensuality. It is traditionally held that an individual who
achieves this level will return to this world at most only once more,
hence he is known as a "Once - returner." A Once - returner is closer
to Nirvana than a Stream - enterer, there remaining in him no more
than a trace of worldliness. Should he return to the sensual human
world, he will do so not more than once, because craving, aversion
and delusion, though not completely eliminated, have become
exceedingly attenuated.
The third stage is that of the Never - returner. This grade of
Aryian, besides having succeeded in giving up the defilements to the
extent necessary for becoming a Once - returner, has also managed
to give up the fourth and fifth fetters. The Fourth fetter is sensual
desire and the fifth is ill will. Neither the Stream - enterer nor the
Once - returner has completely given up sensual desire. In both of
them there is still a remnant of satisfaction in alluring and
desirable objects. Even though they have managed to give up self
belief, doubt and superstition, they are still unable to relinquish
completely their attachment to sensuality of which some traces
remain. But an Aryian at the third stage, a Never - returner, has
succeeded in giving it up
completely, so that not a trace remains. The defilement called ill
will, which includes all feelings of anger or resentment, has been
washed out to a large extent by the Once - returner so that there
remains only a trace of ill humor to obstruct his mind; but the Never -
returner has got rid of it altogether. Thus the Never - returner has
thrown off both sensual desire and ill will.
This sensual desire or attachment to and satisfaction in
sensuality was explained adequately in the section on sensual
attachment. It is
a chronic defilement, firmly fixed in the mind as if it were a very
part of it, of the same substance. For the ordinary man, it is hard to
understand and hard to eradicate. Anything at all can serve as an
object for desire: colors and shapes, sounds, odors, tastes and
tactile objects of any sort, kind and description. These are sensual
objects (Kama), and the state of mental attachment which takes the
form of
satisfaction in these desirable objects is sensual desire (Kama
- raga). What we call ill will is the reaction of a mind that
feels
dissatisfaction. If there is satisfaction, there is sensual desire; if
dissatisfaction, ill will. Most people's minds are subject to these two
states. There may arise ill will towards even inanimate objects, and
what is more, one can even be dissatisfied with the things one has
produced oneself, the things that arise in one's own mind. Where
there is actual hatred and anger towards an object, ill will has
become too fierce. An Aryian at a stage below the Non - returnee
has given it up to a degree appropriate to his station. The ill will
that remains for the third grade of Aryian to relinquish is just a
mental reaction so subtle that possibly no outward evidence of it
appears. It is an inner perturbation not revealed by any facial
expression, yet present inwardly as dissatisfaction, as irritation
or annoyance at some person or thing that does not conform to
expectation. Imagine a person completely devoid of every form of
ill will: consider what a very exceptional individual he would be,
and how worthy of respect.
The five defilements we have just been discussing were
grouped
together by the Buddha as the first to be given up. Self belief, doubt,
superstition, sensual desire and ill will have all been given up by an
Aryian at the third level. Because there remains no sensual desire,
this grade of Aryian never again returns to the sensual state of
existence. This is why he gets the name "Never - returner," one who
will never come back. For him there is only movement forward and
upward to Arahantship and Nirvana, in a state having nothing to do
with sensuality, a supreme, divine condition. As for the five
remaining defilements, these only the Arahant, the fourth grade of
Aryian, succeeds in relinquishing completely.
The next defilement, the sixth of the fetters, is desire for the bliss
associated with the various stages of concentration on forms (rupa -
raga). The first three grades of Aryian are still not capable of giving up
attachment to the bliss and tranquillity obtainable by
concentrating deeply on forms, but they will succeed in doing so
when they move up to the last stage, that of the Arahant. The
fully concentrated state has a captivating flavor, which can be
described
as a foretaste of Nirvana. Though it differs from real Nirvana, it has
more or less the same flavor. While one is fully concentrated, the
defilements are dormant; but they have not evaporated away
entirely, and will reappear as soon as concentration is lost. As long
as they are dormant, however, the mind is empty, clear, free, and
knows the flavor of real Nirvana. Consequently this state can also
become a cause of attachment.
The seventh subtle defilement is desire for the bliss
associated with full concentration on objects other than forms
(arupa - raga). It resembles the sixth fetter, but is one degree more
subtle and attenuated. Concentration on an object such as space or
emptiness yields a tranquillity and quiescence more profound than
concentration on a form, with the result that one becomes
attached to that state. No Arahant could ever become fascinated
by any state of pleasant feeling whatsoever, regardless of where
it originated, because an Arahant is automatically aware of the
impermanence, unsatisfactoriness and nonselfhood of every state
of feeling. Other hermits and mystics practicing concentration in
the forest do not perceive the hidden danger in these blissful
states and so become fascinated by and attached to the flavor of
them just as immature people become attached to the flavor of
sensual objects. For this reason the Buddha used the same word
"desire" for both cases. If you think this subject over and really
come to understand it, you will be full of admiration and respect
for these individuals called Aryians.
The eighth fetter binding a man to the world is awareness of
superiority or inferiority (mana). It is the delusion of having this or
that status relative to another. It consists in the thought: "I am not as
good as he is. I am just as good as he is. I am better or higher than he
is." Thinking "I am not as good as...," one feels inferior; thinking "I am
better than...," one feels puffed up; and thinking "I am just as good as...,"
one thinks along competitive lines or in terms of getting ahead of the
other fellow. It is not pride or conceit. Not to think automatically of
oneself as better or worse than the other fellow in this fashion is bound
to be very difficult. The placing of this defilement as number eight is
probably meant to indicate that it is
hard to give up and so belongs near the end of the list. Only the highest
grade of Aryian can relinquish it. The likes of us naturally can't give it
up. This idea that one is better than, or on a par with, or not as good as
the other fellow, comes from a certain kind of attachment. As long as
the mind is still involved in good and bad, the awareness of inferiority,
superiority, or equality with respect to others remains to disturb it;
but when it has completely transcended good and bad, such ideas
cannot exist. As long as such ideas do
remain, real bliss and tranquillity are lacking.
The ninth fetter is Agitation (Uddhacca), that is, mental unrest,
distraction, lack of peace and quiet. This is the feeling of agitation that
arises when something interesting comes by. We all have certain
chronic wishes, particularly a desire to get, to be, not to get, or not to
be, one thing or another. When something comes by, via the eye, ear,
nose, tongue, or body, which fits in with one of our tendencies,
there is likely to come about the mental reaction, pro or con, which
we call interest. If we see something new and strange, wavering
and curiosity are bound to arise, because there are still things that
we
want and things that we fear and mistrust. So the mind cannot
resist, it has to be interested in the various things that come by-
at least that is how it is with an ordinary person. If the object in
question
happens to coincide with a desire of his, he finds it hard to resist. He
is likely to become interested to the point of becoming involved,
pleased to the point of forgetting himself. If it is an undesirable
object, the mind becomes depressed so that his gratification comes
to an end. This is the nature of Agitation.
The first three grades of Aryian still have curiosity and
inquisitiveness about things, but the Arahant has none at all. His mind
has abolished all desire for anything whatsoever: it has abolished
fear and hatred, worry and anxiety, mistrust and doubt,
and all desire to know about and see things. His mind is free. Nothing
can provoke or lure him, and arouse inquisitiveness or curiosity,
simply because he has abolished partiality. It should be realized that
the existence or arising of agitation in any situation is a
consequence of some form of desire, even including the desire for
knowledge.
When desire has been done away with through realizing the
impermanence, worthlessness and nonselfhood of all things, nothing
is any longer seen as worth getting or being, and so there is no
curiosity about anything. If a bolt of lightning were to strike right
beside an Arahant, he would not be interested, because he has no
fear of death, or craving for continued existence, or anything of
that sort. Even if something dangerous came along, or if something
brand new were discovered in the world, he would know no
inquisitiveness
or curiosity, because such things have no significance for him. He
has no wish to know about anything from the point of view of what
it
may have to offer him. Because there is nothing that he longs for, he
has no curiosity of any kind, and his mind has a purity, a tranquillity
such as we ordinary folk have never attained.
The tenth and last defilement is Ignorance. This covers every
kind of defilement not yet mentioned. The word "ignorance" refers to
a condition of lack of knowledge, and in this case "knowledge" means
real knowledge, correct knowledge. Naturally no creature can exist
without having some knowledge, but if that knowledge is false, it
has the same value as no knowledge. Most people suffer from chronic
ignorance or false knowledge; most of us are benighted. The most
important questions for human beings are those that ask: "What is
suffering, really?," "What is the real cause of the arising of
suffering?," "What is real freedom from suffering?" and "What is the
real way to attain freedom from suffering?" If some individual has
real knowledge, if he is free of ignorance, he is reckoned as
enlightened. The totality of human knowledge is of untold extent, but
the Buddha classed most of it as not essential. The Buddha's
enlightenment encompassed only what need be known. The Buddha
knew all that need be known. The word "omniscient" or "all -
knowing" means knowing just as much as need be known: it does not
include anything non-essential.
Ignorance causes people to misidentify suffering as pleasure, to
such an extent that they just swim around in circles in a sea of
suffering. It also causes them to misidentify the cause of suffering,
so that they go blaming the wrong things, spirits, celestial beings, or
anything at all as the cause of their pain and misfortune, instead of
rectifying the situation by the right means. The making of vows to
these spirits and celestial beings is a manifestation of the lowest
level of ignorance regarding the complete elimination of suffering by
means of eliminating the craving which is its direct cause. The
mistaken assumption that the bliss and tranquillity or unawareness
brought about by deep concentration is the complete extinction of
suffering was common in the Buddha's time, and is still promoted in
the present day. Certain schools of thought have even come to regard
sensuality as an instrument for extinguishing suffering, so that sects
with shameful, obscene practices have arisen right in the temples.
They firmly believe that sensuality is something quite essential,
a kind of vital nourishment. Not content with just the four
necessities
of life, namely food, clothing, shelter and medicine, they add an
extra one, sensuality, making five necessities.
A person ignorant about the Path that leads to the extinction of
suffering is liable to act foolishly and be motivated by his own
desires, for instance naively relying on physical things, or on spirits
and celestial beings, just as if he had no religion at all. Such a person,
though he may be a Buddhist by birth, is able to go to such foolish
lengths simply because the power of ignorance prevents his being
content with extinguishing suffering by way of the Noble
Eightfold Path. Instead he goes about extinguishing suffering by
lighting incense and candles, and making pledges to supposedly
supernatural things.
Every normal person wishes to gain knowledge; but if the
"knowledge" he gains is false, then the more he "knows,"' the
more deluded he becomes. Thus more kinds of knowledge can
blind the eyes. We have to be careful with this word
"enlightenment." The "Light" may be the glare of ignorance,
which blinds and deludes the eye and gives rise to
overconfidence. Blinded by the glare of
ignorance, we are unable to think straight and so are in no position
to defeat suffering. We waste our time with trivialities,
nonessential things unworthy of our respect. We become infatuated
with
sensuality, taking it to be something excellent and essential for
human beings, something which every man ought to get his share
of before he dies, and making the excuse that we are doing it for
the sake of some quite different ideal. The hope for rebirth in
heaven is founded on sensuality. Attachment to anything
whatsoever, particularly sensuality comes about because
ignorance has enveloped the mind cutting off all means of escape.
At several places in the Texts, ignorance is compared to a thick
shell covering the whole world and preventing people from seeing
the real light.
The Buddha placed ignorance last in the list of the ten
fetters. When a person becomes an Arahant, the highest grade of
Aryian, he completely eliminates the five remaining fetters or
defilements. He eliminates desire for forms, desire for objects
other than forms, status consciousness, agitation and ignorance.
The four kinds of Aryian, Stream - enterer, Once - returner, Never
- returner and Arahant, dwell in the Supra mundane plane. The
Supramundane can
be recognized as having nine aspects. The condition of the Stream -
enterer while he is in the process of cutting out the defilements is
called the Path of Stream entry, and that when he has succeeded in
cutting them out is called the Fruit of Stream entry. Likewise there
are the following pairs: Path and Fruit of Once returning, Path and
Fruit of Never returning and Path and Fruit of Arahantship, in all
four pairs. These together with Nirvana make up the nine aspects of
the Supramundane. For an individual in the supramundane plane,
suffering is diminished in accordance with his status until
ultimately he is completely free of it. When a person once succeeds
in attaining unobscured and perfect insight into the true nature of
things so that he is able to stop desiring anything whatsoever, he
has attained the supramundane plane, his mind has transcended the
worldly
condition. And when he has completely and utterly relinquished all
the mental defilements, his mind is rendered permanently free of all
those worldly things which formerly it liked and disliked.
Nirvana is a condition not in any way comparable to any other. It
is unlike any worldly condition. In fact, it is the very negation of the
worldly condition. Given all the characteristics of the worldly
condition, of phenomenal existence, the result of completely
canceling out all those characteristics is Nirvana. That is to say,
Nirvana is that which is in every respect precisely the opposite of
the worldly condition. Nirvana neither creates nor is created, being
the cessation of all creating. Speaking in terms of benefits, Nirvana
is complete freedom from hellfire, scourging, torture, bondage,
subjection and thralldom, because the attainment of Nirvana
presupposes the complete elimination of the defilements, which
are the cause of all unsatisfactory mental states. Nirvana lies
beyond the limitations of space and time. It is unique, unlike
anything in the world. Rather it is the extinction of the worldly
condition. Speaking metaphorically, the Buddha called it the realm
where all conditional things cease to be (Sankhara - samatho).
Hence it is the condition of freedom, of freedom from fetters. It is
the end of torment and buffeting, stabbing and chafing, from any
source whatsoever. This is the nature of the Supramundane, the
ultimate. It is the Buddhist goal and destination. It is the final
fruit of Buddhist practice.
In the foregoing pages we have explained systematically the
principles of Buddhism. We have presented it as an organized
practical system designed to bring knowledge of the true nature of
things. In reality things are impermanent, unsatisfactory and not
selves; but all creatures are attracted by things and become
attached to them simply through misunderstanding. The Buddhist
practice, based on Morality (Sila), Concentration (Samadhi), and
Insight
(Panna), is a tool to be used for completely cutting out grasping
and clinging. The objects of our clinging are the five aggregates:
body, feeling, perception, active thinking and consciousness. When
we have come to know the true nature of the five aggregates, we
understand all things so well that desire gives way to
disenchantment, and we no longer cling to any of them.
What we have to do is lead the kind of life described as
Right Living (Samma Vihareyyum), and be full day and night with
the joy that arises out of conduct that is consistently good,
beautiful and right. This limits aimless wandering of the thoughts
and makes it
possible to concentrate and to have clear insight at all times. Then
if conditions are right, the result is disenchantment, struggle to
break loose, slipping free, or even complete Nirvana. If we wish to
hurry and gain quick results, then there is the line of practice called
Vipassana, which begins with moral purity and mental purity and
carries right through to perfect and unobscured intuitive insight. By
this means we can completely cut through the fetters that bind us
fast to this world, and attain the final Fruit of the Path.
This is a brief account of the whole of Buddha-Dhamma from
beginning to end, including both theoretical and practical principles,
and covering the entire subject right from the first steps to the
final Fruit. The whole story ends with Nirvana. As the Buddha said:
"All Buddhas recognize Nirvana as the highest good." So it behooves
us to practice in order to realize and attain that which should be
realized and attained. Doing this, we shall deserve to be called
Buddhists; we shall gain insight and penetrate to the real essence of
BuddhaDhamma. If we don't practice Buddha-Dhamma, we shall only
know
about it and shall lack any true insight. It rests with each of us to
practice introspection, observe and understand his own
imperfections, and then try to root them out completely. Even if
one is only half successful, some clear understanding will result.
As the defilements are progressively eliminated, their place is
taken by purity, insight and peace.
So I advise and beseech you to approach the subject in this
fashion. You may then succeed in penetrating to the real Buddha-
Dhamma. Don't waste the advantages of having been born a human
being and having encountered the Buddha's teaching. Don'ts this
chance to be a perfect human being.
ABOUT THE TRANSLATOR
Rod Bucknell first became seriously interested in Buddhism
in the mid-1960's, when, during a visit to Thailand, he was
introduced to the techniques of insight meditation. After spending
a year in various Thai meditation centers and monasteries, he took
ordination as a bhikkhu (monk) under the guidance of Ajahn Pannananda of
Wat Cholapratan Rangsarit. He soon became interested also in the
teachings of Ajahn Buddhadasa, and, recognizing their potential value
to westerners, began translating some of the Ajahn's more
important works into English. During the four years he spent in the
Sangha, he translated altogether six works of varying length, usually
in close consultation with the Ajahn in order to ensure accuracy in
the rendering of key concepts. Despite his return to lay life, he
maintains a close interest--both scholarly and practical--in Ajahn
Buddhadasa's teachings, and has published several related articles in
religious studies journals. He is currently a lecturer in the
Department of Studies in Religion at the University of Queensland,
Australia.
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