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A Lay Guide
to the
Bhikkhus' Rules
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N.B. This is a Rich Text Format  (RTF) version of the original so some formatting will have been lost in the conversion. Please note that page numbers and cross referencing may no longer be accurate. Footnotes have been converted to Endnotes indicated by (x) is the text, however page referencing is lost.
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These pages must not be printed and bound in book form. They may be photocopied (or printed from disk) only in their present format —unless written permission is obtained to do otherwise. 

This work is a gift of Dhamma and it must not be sold. 

© 1995 Buddha Dhamma Hermitage, PO Box 132, Bundanoon, NSW 2578, Australia.
This work is a gift of Dhamma and it must not be sold.
These pages must not be printed and bound in book form. They may be photocopied (or printed from disk) only in their present format —unless written permission is obtained to do otherwise.

Compiled by Bhikkhu Ariyesako.

Acknowledgements:
Buddhist Monastic Code and Introduction to the Patimokkha Rules are © Thanissaro Bhikkhu 1994, The Abbot, Metta Forest Monastery, PO Box 1409, CA  92082, USA.
Bhavana Vandana, Book of Devotion, Compiled by Ven. Dr H Gunaratana Mahathera, © 1990 Bhavana Society, Rt. 1 Box 218–3, High View, WV 26808, USA. Tel.: (304) 856-3241 All rights reserved. The part reproduced here as Appendix D is with the kind permission of the compiler.
© Mahamakut Rajavidyalaya Press, Phra Sumeru Road, Bangkok 10200: (1) The Entrance to the Vinaya, Vinayamukha, 3 vols; (2) Navakovàda: Instructions for Newly-ordained Bhikkhus and Sàmaneras; (3) Ordination Procedure and the Preliminary duties of a New Bhikkhu; (4) The Patimokkha, trans. by Ven. Nyanamoli Thera.
See Bibliography for other details.
Drawing  of  'Bowing' on page  by Melanie Marshall

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Abbreviations
	AB	= Ajahn Brahmavamso's Notes
	BBC	= Burmese Buddhist Culture
	BMC	= The Buddhist Monastic Code
	Nis. Pàc.	= nissaggiya pàcittiya
	Pàc.	= pàcittiya
	Pàr.	= pàràjika
	Pat.	= Pàñimokkha (1966 or 1969 edition)
	Saïgh.	= saïghàdisesa

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	"Gotami, the qualities of which you know, 'These qualities lead to dispassion, not to passion; to being unfettered and not to being fettered; to self-effacement and not to self-aggrandizement; to modesty and not to ambition; to contentment and not to discontent; to seclusion, and not to entanglement; to energy and not to idleness; to being unburdensome and not to being burdensome': You may definitely hold, 'This is the Dhamma, this is the Vinaya, this is the Teacher's instruction'" 
(Cullavagga.X.5)
*

	"Discipline is for the sake of restraint, restraint for the sake of freedom from remorse, freedom from remorse for the sake of joy, joy for the sake of rapture, rapture for the sake of tranquillity, tranquillity for the sake of pleasure, pleasure for the sake of concentration, concentration for the sake of knowledge and vision of things as they are, knowledge and vision of things as they are for the sake of disenchantment, disenchantment for the sake of release, release for the sake of knowledge and vision of release, knowledge and vision of release for the sake of total unbinding without clinging." 
(Parivàra.XII.2)
 
From Ven. Bhikkhu Thanissaro's 'The Buddhist Monastic Code' (p1–2)

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Preface

Buddhist friends in Malaysia asked me to explain something about the rules that guide the Buddhist monk's life. There are many learned texts about this but a simpler 'lay person's' description seems more useful. Originally it was only going to deal with a few questions but it has grown with people's suggestions into a more thorough work of reference. I hope to format it to give easy access while extra detail is available to those who are really interested. Even so, the best introduction remains a good practising bhikkhu who shows that amidst the myriad things of the material world it is possible with care —hence the many rules— to live the simple life, much like in the Buddha's time.
I also have tried to include broader explanations so that while the actual rule is faithfully reproduced —including translation variations— the different ways in which monks actually put it into effect are also covered. Although one might think one knows all about 'one's bhikkhus', on going elsewhere things are never quite the same, and sometimes in quite shocking ways. The Frequently Asked Questions below display some of this confusion, while Appendix F contains the actual working practices from a variety of places and communities.
Bhikkhus do sometimes follow the rules in different ways and these pages may help to explain the whys and wherefores of their practice. Please remember that tolerance is always important even if one decides actively to support only one group of monks. My own perspective comes from twenty years as a bhikkhu in the forest monasteries of Thailand so I am very aware that this guide needs more information from non-Thai orientated sources. Hopefully that will come in the next edition.
The following pages are offered solely to shed the light of understanding and so they should not be used to create heat and friction through criticising other people's behaviour. This is the essence of the Buddha's Teaching. A big heavy law book only too easily can be thrown at others so this guide will, at first, be kept to a loose leaf format. This gives opportunity for broad-mindedness and flexibility, so that we can include different interpretations.
I have relied heavily on scholars who are much more knowledgeable than myself and I acknowledge them with gratitude. Many people in half a dozen countries have helped with advice and suggestions, and my thanks and appreciation go to all of them —especially to Elisabeth and Phil for their assistance in this final stage.

A. Bhikkhu

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Table of Contents [**page numbering is not accurate in this RTF version.**]

Abbreviations	ii

Preface	iv

Introduction	1

Beginning Questions	2

Frequently Asked Questions	3

The Bhikkhu's Rules	6
Precepts	6
Bhikkhus	6
Becoming a Bhikkhu	6
Disrobing	7
Becoming a Sàmanera (Novice)	8
Names and Forms of Address	8
The Rains Retreat (Vassa)	8
Uposatha Observance Days	9
The Pàñimokkha Rule	9
Offenses	10
Committing Offenses	10
Modernization? The Great Standards	10
Strictness and Blaming Others	11
The Rules	12

I  Harmlessness	13
Murder	13
Killing	13
Destroying Vegetation	14

II Relationships	15
Sexual Intercourse	15
Intimacy	15
Touching	15
Flirting	16
Propositioning	16
Matchmaking	16
Private Meeting with a Woman	16
Talking Privately	17
Staying Together	18
Travelling Together	19

III Possessions and Offering/s	20
What Does a Bhikkhu Need?	20
Does a Bhikkhu Beg?	20
How to Help a Bhikkhu —Invitation (Pavàraõà)	21
What does a Bhikkhu Possess?	21
Receiving Gifts	22
What can be offered?	22
(1) Clothing	23
The Robe Offering Time (Kañhina)	24
(2) Edibles	24
Alms food	24
The Four Sorts of 'Edibles'	25
(i) Food	26
Right and Wrong Times	26
Offering 'Edibles'	27
How to make an Offering	27
Storing Food	27
Meal Invitations	28
Meat	29
Offering Fruit: Kappiya	29
Food in the Wilderness	30
(ii) Fruit juices	30
(iii) Medicines or Tonics	30
(iv) Lifetime Medicines	31
(3) Money	32
(i) Stealing	32
(ii) Bhikkhus and Wealth	32
(iii) Should a Bhikkhu Accept Money?	33
A Bhikkhu's Steward (veyyàvaccakara)	34
The Meõóaka Allowance	35
(iv) Buying and Selling	35
Cheques, Credit Cards, etc.	35
(v) Barter or Trade	36
(vi) 'Untouchable' Things?	36
(4) Lodgings	36
Luxurious Lodgings	36
Furniture	37

IV Right Livelihood for a Bhikkhu	37
Teaching Dhamma	37
Robbery by False Pretences	38
Proper Behaviour outside the Monastery	38
Socializing and Wrong Resort	39
Wrong Ways of Behaviour	39
Alcohol	39
Wrong Livelihood	40
Behaviour with Families	40
(i) 'Corrupting Families'	40
(ii) Intruding on Families	41

V Miscellaneous	42
Disputes	42
Nikàya or Schools of Buddhism	42
Etiquette	43
Showing respect	43

Appendix A: Lay Precepts (Sãla)	45

Appendix B: A Summary of the Major Rule Groups	46

Appendix C: Introduction to the Patimokkha Rules	47

Appendix D: Devotion	59
How to Set Up a Shrine	59
Objects of Veneration on the Altar	59
The Way of Salutation	60
Formal and Informal Vandanà	60
Sharing or Dedication of Merits	62
Forgiveness	63
Uposatha	63
Four Protections	63

Appendix E: Pàli Pronunciation	64

Appendix F: Local Customs and Approaches	65
(1) A Lay Buddhist's Guide to the Monks' Code of Conduct	65
(2) Bodhinyanarama's Advice for Guests	69
(3) Observances Wat Pah Nanachat	70
(4) Advice for a Western Woman visiting a Thai Forest Monastery	72
(5) Auckland Vihara Suggested Practice	73
(6) A Thai Wat in Australia	74

Appendix G: Pavàraõà Invitations and their Origin Stories	76

Appendix H: Recollection of the Bhikkhu's Requisites	77

Glossary	78

Bibliography	80

End Notes 

Index	82

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Introduction

The Teaching of the Buddha is concerned with more than intellectual knowledge; it needs to be experienced as truth in one's own life. For the bhikkhu, the Vinaya Rule helps to highlight actions and speech and show up their significance. It brings an awareness of how he is intervening in the world, how he is affecting other people. For better? For worse? With what intention?
Of course, such an awareness is necessary for everyone, not just Buddhist monks. This is why the Buddha bequeathed to us the Five, the Eight, the Ten Precepts(1) — as well as the bhikkhu's 227-plus Rule. They remain as pertinent today as they were 2,500 years ago for they restore the focus back to the human being, on how actions and words affect individuals and the world.
Anyone who takes the Buddha's Teaching seriously becomes ever more aware of their actions and speech, and how they match up against the Five Precepts. They then might start to realise the advantage in occasionally keeping the Eight Precepts —perhaps on the weekly Observance Day(2)— and become more interested in the bhikkhu's Rule and how its precepts come together into a whole way of life.
This compilation, therefore, is for anyone interested about bhikkhus(3) and about how to relate to them. Some may think that this lineage follows an overly traditionalist approach but then, it does happen to be the oldest living tradition.(4) A slight caution therefore to anyone completely new to the ways of monasticism, which may appear quite radical for the modern day and age. The best introduction, perhaps essential for a true understanding, is meeting with a practising bhikkhu who should manifest and reflect the peaceful and joyous qualities of the bhikkhu's way of life.
Buddhist monks and nuns first received the going-forth into the Holy Life from the Buddha himself, more than two and a half thousand years ago in India. Since then, their influence has been felt over much of Asia. The countries of Sri Lanka and S.E. Asia have been profoundly affected by the Theravàda School of Buddhism which looks back to the original Teachings as recorded in the Pàli scriptures. It was often bhikkhus who first introduced Buddhism when the indigenous ruler invited them to come and teach the new religion. This process now continues throughout the world, although the invitation nowadays comes more often from local Buddhists.
Buddhism is justly admired for its appreciation of tolerance and broad-mindedness, with a history generally unblemished by heretical infighting. This has resulted in a wide spectrum of practices, from the old Theravàda to the Zen of Japan and the Mahayàna of Tibet. Even between the different Theravadan countries and Schools there are variations in the ways the bhikkhus understand and practise the Vinaya Rule. Such differences have sometimes confused lay devotees so this is also an attempt to offer a clearer understanding about the responsibilities of the bhikkhu's life and those of the lay devotee.
The compiler of these pages welcomes any comments and suggestions that are offered in Dhamma and acknowledges with gratitude the work of all the Vinaya experts and books that I have consulted. (Please see the Bibliography.) Most of these books were written by bhikkhus for bhikkhus(5), so for the proverbial lay man they can appear extremely dense and intimidating. In this work only those rules which concern or will be of direct interest to lay people have been included, however, I have also given references so that anyone really interested can go to the original sources. Hopefully, with feedback and input from friends this format will allow us continually to improve our work.

Beginning Questions
 Here is a selection of unedited questions that have been sent in. (You may find that they contain things you have always wanted to ask.) They will also often refer to sections later in the book which will have more details.

Q 1. Why does a monk wear the robe? Why do some wear brown robes and others wear yellowish brown?
A: The 'yellow robe' is considered the "banner of the arahant" and emblem of Buddhism. Theravàdan bhikkhus have upheld this throughout the millennia as something precious and timeless. There are strict rules as to the robes' size, colour, how they are sewn, type of cloth used, etc., and how bhikkhus can acquire them. For the colour and other details, see page .
Q 2. Why do monks eat from the bowl? Can lay people serve soup to monks in normal bowls? Can they serve fruits or desserts on plates instead of putting them in the monk's bowl?
A: The alms bowl is another practical symbol of Buddhism, and, like the robes, another requisite of the bhikkhu. Every bhikkhu is given an alms bowl (and a set of robes) when he becomes a monk. However, not all bhikkhus will actually go on an alms round and only a minority —usually they are the forest meditation bhikkhus— will eat from their bowl. Therefore many monks will eat on plates and dishes. Those forest bhikkhus who keep the austere practices (dhutanga or tudong)(6) will be stricter about only using one eating vessel. This can simplify life and remind the bhikkhu that food is necessary for bodily health but that he does not have to indulge in an obsession with taste.
Q 3. Why do monks live in the forest?
A: Mostly it is the 'forest monks' who live in the forest where it is quiet and conducive to meditation. Many other monks will live in the village monastery or go to a monastery in the town to study the scriptures.
Q 4. How does one who wants to become a monk find out how to go about getting the robe and bowl, etc.?
&Q 5. What is the procedure for a lay man to ordain?
&Q 6. How does one who wants to sponsor any newly ordained monk/nun with the necessities go about doing so?
 A: The best way is to ask details from a senior monk who will explain and help. Also see the book Ordination Procedure and the Preliminary Duties of a New Bhikkhu. (See page  and Bibliography.) 
Q 7. How does a lay woman ordain? Does she become ordained only by bhikkhunã?
A: The Theravàdan lineage no longer has a recognized 'bhikkhunã ordination'. There are other forms for lay women which still involve 'leaving the home life' and keeping Eight or Ten Precepts as a nun or dasasãla mata. However, finding a suitable place is quite difficult but several groups are trying to develop places conducive to Dhamma practice for nuns. (For example, Amaravati Buddhist Monastery in England.) 
Q 8. How does a teacher assess and decide if one is suitable for ordination?
A: See page  which sets down what is necessary.
Q 9. Instead of letting the monks go on almsround during rainy days, can the lay people request to bring dàna [the food offering] to the monks?
A: Some bhikkhus take an almsround as a special practice (dhutanga or tudong) and will normally always want to go. Other monks will be happy to receive food brought to them.
Q 10. What is the rule if an eight-precepter unintentionally comes into contact with another lay person or eight-precepter or ten-precepter or monk or nun of opposite gender?
A: As with the bhikkhu (see below Q 1&2 ), if there is no intention there is no fault.
Q 11. Is there a minimum and maximum number of layers [of clothing] a monk can wear? Does the rule alter with the weather?
A: There is a minimum in that the bhikkhu must be properly and modestly dressed, especially in public. (See the Sekhiya rules, page  and .) During the cold season in India, the Buddha allowed a double-layered outer robe  (saïghàti) to be used and so —using the Great Standards as a guide, see page — in even colder climates extra layers may be allowable. In those countries where hypothermia may be a danger using extra layers seems sensible, especially if this cuts down on heating and medical expenses. (That a bhikkhu lives as frugally as possible is a major aspect of the Vinaya.) However, it is generally felt very important that the 'robe' remain the basic dress and 'extra layers' should not obscure this.
Q 12. Is it fine that the ordained one requests some basic necessities such as food, drink, medicine, shelter, blankets, reasonable form of transport due to weakness (health reason)? How should one approach a monk or nun if one wants to offer necessities to them?
A: There must be definite conditions present before a bhikkhu can ask for help. See Pavàranà / Invitation (page ) for a general explanation.
Q 13. Is it fine for one to offer basic necessities to monks/nuns without first asking them?
A: Generosity is a virtue highly praised by the Buddha. If it makes one happy to make an offering then one can do so without asking first. However, it also should be endowed with wisdom so that when offering one gives something that is useful and not beyond one's family's means.
Q 14. Why do we bow to monks/nuns and the Buddha Statue?
A: The yellow robe worn by monks is an emblem and reminder of the Triple Gem, as is the Buddha Statue. Therefore one is really bowing to the Buddha, Dhamma and Sangha, not to some person or statue. See Appendix D for an explanation about devotion.
Q15. Is it fine to put two hands together [in a¤jalã] when paying respect to monks/nuns and Buddha Statue, or should one bow to show more respect?
A: One should show respect from your heart in the way that seems best.

Frequently Asked Questions

Q 1. When a bhikkhu is sick and especially so in emergency cases, is he allowed to be attended to by female medical staff; e.g. nurse, woman doctor, especially if the woman doctor is the only doctor/surgeon on duty? How does the Vinaya allow for this?
&Q 2. It has been observed that in Burmese, Sri Lankan, Tibetan and Mahayanese tradition, women are allowed to make offering directly to the monks. Yet Thai Buddhist monks are not allowed to accept offerings directly from women. Is it because it is against the Vinaya rules or a different interpretation of the rules?
A: The Vinaya Rule specifies that if a bhikkhu touches or is touched by a woman, it is only an offence if the bhikkhu "be overcome by lust, with altered mind". However, the practising bhikkhu knows that as his mind changes so quickly, he has to be extremely cautious about involving himself in doubtful situations. It is better to be safe than sorry, even if this may seem over-scrupulous. In emergency situations the bhikkhu will have to  decide for himself and be sure to take care of his thoughts. For more about these questions, see pages  and .
Q 3. It is mentioned in the Vinaya rules that a monk is not allowed to reside under the same roof with a woman. How does that apply to multi-storied (condominiums, flats, apartments) and multi-compartment (terrace houses) buildings, where the flats, terrace houses, share one roof? 
A: See page  for a discussion of this. 
Q 4. The Vinaya rules disallow monks from touching or handling money. As such, in Buddhist countries monks must have a Kappiya [attendant] to handle money for them. However, if a monk has to travel and does not have a Kappiya, under such circumstances do the Vinaya rules allow him to handle money personally? This is a problem especially in non-Buddhist countries. 
A: See the section on Money, especially the Meõóaka Allowance on page . 
Q 5. Is there a Vinaya rule that states that once a person becomes a monk, he is not allowed to disrobe? If he is allowed to disrobe, is there anywhere in the Vinaya that sets the maximum number of times he is allowed to do so. If so, under what circumstances is he allowed to disrobe?
A: I know of no place in the Vinaya that states a bhikkhu cannot disrobe. If he no longer has any interest in the bhikkhu-life the tendency will be for him to become lax and a bad example for others. His Dhamma-friends therefore will try to refire his enthusiasm, however, if that is not possible becoming a good layman may be better than being a bad monk. See page .
Q 6. The Vinaya states that monks are not supposed to eat once the sun has passed its zenith. Still, what happens if they are in countries such as regions of the North or South Poles, e.g. Norway, Alaska, where the sun never sets for six months and for the next six months, there is no sun. 
A: Whenever bhikkhus reach the North Pole, they will have the Great Standards —see page — to guide them.  More specifically, see page  for time limits.
Q 7. It is stated in the Vinaya that when a lay person offers fruit to a monk, he has to make a cut on one of the fruits to make it permissible for the monk to accept. How did this rule originate? Also, lay people, when offering fruit juices to monks after midday, are not allowed to offer fruit juices from fruits larger than the size of a fist. Is this in the Vinaya and why is it so?
A: See Kappiya on page  and Fruit juice on page .
Q 8. In Thailand, it has been observed that Thai Buddhist monks are allowed to drink tea, cocoa, coffee (but without milk) after midday. But in some other Buddhist countries like Burma, Burmese monks are not allowed to do this. Is this part of the Vinaya rules or is this just tradition, custom or local practice? If it is in the Vinaya, how do you explain the differences in interpretation?
A: There is an allowance in the Pàli (and developed using the Great Standards) that 'medicinal-tonics' can be taken in the afternoon while life time medicines may be consumed any time they are needed. There are different interpretations and practices about how ill a bhikkhu has to be for it to be allowable to take such 'medicines'. (See page .) Some bhikkhus will not take anything other than pure water, while some will stretch the Rule and even drink 'medicinal' food-drinks (e.g. Ovaltine) in the afternoon. Some bhikkhus will consider tea leaves allowable while some will see it as caffeine and therefore not appropriate. Also, the ordinary rural villagers of SE Asia (until very recently) would have had no tea or coffee to drink and so such items could be considered quite a luxury. It will depend on local conditions and interpretations, which are allowed for in the Vinaya through the Great Standards. (See pages  and .)
Q 9. Can a monk retain property which he had as a lay person? Also, can a monk receive property which has been passed to him as inheritance? Is a monk also allowed to accept property donated to him by lay devotees and which has been transferred to his name? What is Vinaya's stance on this? Does the Vinaya also allow for monks to sell/transact property which has been donated to them in order to buy, for instance, another piece of land in an area which is more suitable for spiritual activities?
A: This is a complicated question. If there is a steward who does the arranging for the bhikkhu in the proper manner then certain things would be allowable. However, there are very strict guidelines about this. (Please see the various rules concerning money and transactions.) Practically speaking, bhikkhus in Thailand are not ordered to renounce all their property, etc., when they receive 'ordination'. As mentioned elsewhere, the majority of bhikkhus in Thailand will return to lay life within a certain period. Bhikkhus who are serious about dedicating their life to the Holy Life will obviously take the Lord Buddha as their example and like Him renounce all that is worldly. (There are specific rules, not covered in this work, about Community land and property, and how they are managed in different ways.)
Q 10. Does the Vinaya state that monks cannot take nuns and lay people as their teachers? If this is so, what is the reason for this?
A: See the section on the qualities of an âcariya or Teacher, page ) (Bhikkhunãs were not allowed to teach bhikkhus according to their own Rule.) The taking of an âcariya by a bhikkhu is a formal act (nissaya) between bhikkhus. This does not mean that a bhikkhu cannot learn from others. 
Q 11. Are monks allowed to own and/or drive vehicles? Is this allowed by the Vinaya? If it does not go against the Vinaya, would it still be socially acceptable, given the monk's spiritual status in society?
A: Obviously, 'motor vehicles' were not available in the Buddha's time and most travel would have been on foot. (However, they were allowed to use ferry boats, etc. In Thailand, bhikkhus from riverside monasteries will go on alms round by boat.) In Thailand, there is general agreement that driving cars is not appropriate for  bhikkhus and I understand that it is not possible for them to obtain a driving license.
Q 12. Does the Vinaya permit monks to practise herbal/traditional/ayurvedic medicine?
A: In Thailand, I understand that one cannot be registered as a herbal doctor while still a bhikkhu. Anyway, it should not be practised for reward. (See page .)
Q 13. When a monk commits a pàràjika offence, do the lay people have the right to ask him to disrobe? What is the usual procedure as stated in the Vinaya? What happens when a monk has been proven to have committed a pàràjika offence, yet refuses to disrobe in spite of demands from lay devotees and there is no Sangha Council to enforce the demands, as is the case in non-Buddhist countries? Under such circumstances, what do the lay people do?
A: If a bhikkhu commits a pàràjika offence he is 'defeated' and no longer a bhikkhu even if he is wearing robes. The Community of bhikkhus will have nothing to do with him and will expel him. (See page .) However, if the accused 'bhikkhu' does not admit to the offence and it cannot be proved, the results of kamma must be allowed to run their own course. Buddhism has never engaged in violent witch hunts. (See page .) For how lay people dealt with stubborn monks in the Buddha's time, see page .
Q 14. What questions should one ask a monk when offerings of requisites are made; and to what extent is a monk limited (& why) when making his reply; and when it is all right to ask details of preferences and specifications; and how to find out what is appropriate if the robed person finds it difficult or is unable to mention what is required?
A: See the appropriate sections about Pavàranà and Invitation (page ; and Appendix G). Generally, the right-practising bhikkhu will be a person of few wants for he is trying to go to the ending of all desire. However, there may be certain things he may need but may not mention until he is sure that the donor is completely sincere in their invitation. If the donor makes specific requests, the bhikkhu may refuse or he may remain silent and such silence may very well be a positive response. Therefore, the donor will have to become sensitive about what is needed and what is appropriate.

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The Bhikkhu's Rules

Precepts
The awakened mind has gone beyond greed, hatred and delusion. But for those of us who are still striving towards this state such unskilful tendencies have to be addressed. We need guidelines to help us become more aware of our actions and speech, so that we do not go off the Buddha's Middle Way. For a start there are the Five Precepts, then the Eight and the Ten(7) and then the 227 Pàñimokkha Rules of the bhikkhu.
The Five Precepts are basic human ethical standards —answering the fundamental questions of 'what do I do, what do I say?'. The Eight Precepts refine this further and allow the lay person to (often) temporarily live a life closer to that of the monk or nun.(8) The Ten Precepts take another step towards this as 'novice ordination.'
The Pàñimokkha rules were set down by the Buddha in response to specific incidents that occurred either within the Community of bhikkhus or through their interaction with the lay community(9). When a bhikkhu takes up the training rules he may find that past habits and tendencies cause problems —especially in a non-supportive environment. At such times lay people who know about the rules can offer extra support. (Of course, staying within a suitable environment will simplify this, which is a major reason for some of the rules.) Therefore it is important to remember that the bhikkhu never practises in isolation and always needs the support and understanding of lay Buddhists. There is the need for mutual support and encouragement between the lay and bhikkhu communities. Knowing something of the rules should enable the lay person to appreciate this.. The emphasis therefore is on Dhamma practice with the Vinaya rule as a vital guide and support.

Bhikkhus
Buddhism has been said(10) to be deeply rooted in a country when a local young man can become a bhikkhu there, learn and then recite the Vinaya Rule in his own country. This originally referred to Sri Lanka thousands of years ago but now that Buddhism is moving to the West such conditions are starting to appear there too. For example, this is now possible at Chithurst Forest Monastery in England.
The Bhikkhu Sangha or Community of monks is probably the oldest continuous institution in the world today. Its many remarkable features enable men from different classes, backgrounds and cultures to live together in harmony and fellowship.(11) Most important, it offers ideal conditions for the individual to train and meditate, to awaken to Dhamma, which is the whole point of the Buddha's teaching.

Becoming a Bhikkhu
Anyone wishing to become a bhikkhu must fulfil certain conditions:
The candidate must be male and at least twenty years old. He must never have committed any grievous crimes and, if previously 'ordained',(12) he must not have been guilty of any Defeater (Pàràjika) offenses or have entered some other religion without disrobing first. (See BMCp88–89)
He should also be of good reputation; fit and healthy enough to carry out the duties of a bhikkhu; not in debt; not subject to government service; and have permission from parents or guardian.
The 'Ordination' ceremony requires a prescribed ordination boundary (sãma), a preceptor (upajjhàya) and a quorum of bhikkhus to validate the formal Sangha Act. In the formal procedure the candidate is examined as to these necessary qualities and, if every bhikkhu is satisfied, they receive him into the Sangha, the Community of Bhikkhus. This adds yet another link in the bhikkhu-lineage, for he can participate in future assemblies and help receive other new bhikkhus —as bhikkhus have done for two and a half thousand years. (See VMIp4)
When a candidate requests admission to the Community he does not make any 'life time vows' but offers himself for training and instruction under his Preceptor's guidance. His Preceptor will instruct him about the Pàñimokkha Rule and the minor rules that all bhikkhus should observe.
For the first five years a bhikkhu is called nàvaka ('new one') and he must live 'dependant' (nissaya) on a senior bhikkhu —either his preceptor or teacher (àcariya)— training in the ways of a bhikkhu. The preceptor and the new monk should be kind and helpful to each other, in almost a father-son relationship. A new bhikkhu who no longer lives under his preceptor must take another senior bhikkhu as his teacher and depend on him instead.(13)
For the next five years, the bhikkhu is called majjhima, ('one in the middle') and he is allowed to live by himself if he is accomplished in certain virtues.(14)
When a bhikkhu has completed ten Rains he is called Thera, which can be translated as 'an elder who is worthy of respect'. If he is also accomplished in certain extra qualities,(15) he is allowed to give 'ordination' as preceptor, to be a teacher and have young monks live in dependence on him.

Disrobing
Living the bhikkhu-life properly, following the Buddha's Teaching, requires full commitment and sustained effort. If this is lost and his Dhamma friends cannot rekindle his interest, the bhikkhu is always at liberty to return to lay life. There are no life time vows and so perhaps it is better to live a good lay life than be lax in keeping the bhikkhu's rules.
"A bhikkhu who is tired of the practice of the Brahmacariya [Holy Life] and wishes to return to the state of being a lay man may do this by taking leave of the training..." (VMIIIp237)
He should do this by clearly proclaiming his change of status before another bhikkhu or lay person. Once the other person understands his statement, he is no longer a bhikkhu. In Thailand there is a proper ceremony for this which ends with the former bhikkhu taking on the Five Precepts instead of the Pàñimokkha Rule. (However, this is considered to be taking a step backwards for the ideal way is certainly to continue with the Holy Life 'for as long as life lasts'. ) 
If he is guilty of a Defeat Offence there is no need for him formally to disrobe because he is automatically 'defrocked' and no longer a bhikkhu. (See page .)
In Thailand becoming a bhikkhu for a short period of their life is very common for young men. Traditionally this occurs during the three months of the Rains Retreat, after which they disrobe and return to lay life hopefully knowing and appreciating much more about the bhikkhu life —and probably having friends still in the monastery whom they can visit for advice. In Thailand this means that while a small proportion of bhikkhus will spend all their life in the robe, many Thai men will have tasted what the life is all about.
There seems to be a tradition that bhikkhus do not disrobe and go forth again more than seven times, however, this rarely if ever occurs. In Thailand men will sometimes become bhikkhus when they are young and again later in life.

Becoming a Sàmanera (Novice)
The first part of the 'ordination' procedure is known as the Going Forth into Homelessness (Pabbajà). Usually the ceremony continues with the 'Questioning' of the candidate and 'Acceptance' by all the gathered bhikkhus of him into the Bhikkhu Sangha, but if the ceremony ends at this point —often because he is not yet twenty years old— the candidate is known as a sàmaõera or novice. He wears the 'yellow robe' like a full bhikkhu(16) and leads a very similar life. The sàmanera keeps the Ten Precepts and the 75 Training Rules (Sekhiya) and some of the other rules of the bhikkhu. Later, when he is ready and of age, he can ask the bhikkhus for full ordination.

Names and Forms of Address
During the 'ordination' the bhikkhu-candidate is asked formally for his name. His Preceptor (usually) will have given him a Pàli name and this is what he will use, however, later, on less formal occasions, he may be addressed differently. This variety of terms of address can be quite confusing for outsiders. For example, in Thailand, they will more often use the monk's given name with an honorific preceding it appropriate to the monk's age and rank.(17) The Pàli name, and title if any, would be added on more formal occasions. In Sri Lanka, I understand that the place of origin may be prefixed to the Pàli name.
Probably the most universally acceptable form of address for any bhikkhu is "Bhante" or "Venerable Sir." (Also see page .)

The Rains Retreat (Vassa)
A new bhikkhu will find that his year is structured around the three months of July to October. During these three months he will be required to remain in the same monastery(18) and it is often a time that is especially set aside for meditation. (Hence it is sometimes known as the Rains Retreat.)
In Asia this is the time of the monsoon season —the central period of the agricultural year— when the paddy fields are flooded and the annual rice crop is planted. It is also the time when the young men of the village become monks for the traditional three month period.(19)
A bhikkhu also measures the length of time he has been a monk according to how many Rains Residences he has undertaken. Therefore instead of saying he has been 'ordained seven years' he might say he has been a bhikkhu for 'seven Rains'.

Uposatha Observance Days
In the West the Sabbath —either Saturday or Sunday— was normally the special religious observance day of the week. In Buddhism, which continues to follow the traditional lunar calender, the day set apart for special religious observance is the fortnightly full and new moons, with the quarter moon days in between.(20) This is the day when lay people may gather to observe precepts more strictly and listen to and speak about Dhamma. (See VMIIp94–95)
The basic, minimum standard of precepts for practising lay Buddhists is the Five Precepts. (See Appendix A.) However, on the Observance day (or other special occasion) they may decide to train under the Eight Precepts, which brings them closer to how the monk or nun practises.

The Pàñimokkha Rule
The Buddha laid down that on full and new moon days all the bhikkhus of the same community that are in residence must come together in a formal meeting. If there is a quorum of at least four bhikkhus, they should listen to the Pàñimokkha Rule. A competent bhikkhu who has learnt this by heart will recite it (usually in the Pàli language) for the Community so that they can remind themselves of their responsibilities in keeping the major 227 Rules.(21) The complete recitation may take anywhere from thirty-five minutes to an hour, depending on the skill of the reciting bhikkhu.
Before the Pàñimokkha recitation begins, each bhikkhu should admit to any offenses that he knows he has committed by formally telling another monk (or monks). Once this is accomplished, the monk is considered 'pure' and can listen to the recitation of the rules. (The recitation includes questions, asking if any bhikkhu present is guilty of the offenses.)
Different offenses are of different seriousness but the most common faults committed by carelessness or mistake can be cleared by 'confession' to another bhikkhu.(22) Admitting to one's mistake and agreeing to do better in the future is the way of growth and progress towards the elimination of all carelessness and absentmindedness.
In many communities it is normal for each bhikkhu to make a 'general confession' of offenses to another bhikkhu before listening to the Pàñimokkha recitation.

Offenses
When a bhikkhu breaks his precepts or rules it is called an offence (àpatti). Such offenses are committed by action or word, although intention is (almost always) a decisive factor. (Just thinking about doing something wrong is unskilful and may lead to future problems but it is not strictly an offence.) We will examine some of these rules in the following pages.
•	For a summary of the different classes of offence in their traditional order see Appendix B and for an excellent overview see Appendix C.

Committing Offenses
The Lord Buddha would not set down a rule until the situation demanded it,(23) so the Pàli often supplies the 'origin story' about how the different rules came about. Certain characters often reappear in the thick of misdeeds and mischief,(24) for instance, one keeps on coming across Venerable Udàyin or the notorious 'group-of-six' monks, et al. Their behaviour requires attention and rectification from the Buddha, who then makes it into a general rule for all the bhikkhus:
"'In that case, bhikkhus, I will formulate a training rule for the bhikkhus with ten aims in mind: the excellence of the Community, the peace of the Community, the curbing of the shameless, the comfort of the well-behaved bhikkhus, the restraint of [defilements] related to the present life, the prevention of [defilements] related to the next life, the arousing of faith in the faithless, the increase in the faithful, the establishment of the true Dhamma, and the fostering of discipline.'" (BMCp5)
Note that it was often lay people's criticism that brought the monk's wrong doings to the attention of the Buddha. (However, also notice how such criticism was often too hasty in blaming all monks rather than just the original delinquent.) 
Later circumstances may have required amendments or exceptions from the Buddha and these would then be incorporated into the rule. There are also many other minor offenses mentioned in the Pàli and in the Commentaries. So the range of rules has become very extensive and the observance and interpretation correspondingly wide.

Modernization? The Great Standards
It is more than two and a half thousand years since the Vinaya rules were originally set down by the Buddha and many things have markedly changed since then. How can the rules be modernized and brought up to date?
During His lifetime, the Buddha made special allowances for different regions (or desa) outside the 'Middle Country' of North India —where He lived and taught. These dealt with both the working of the Community, for example, a smaller quorum is allowed in distant parts where there are fewer monks, and practical measures, such as special dispensation for footwear and bathing. (See VMIIp173.) So there is a precedent for adapting to conditions.
However there is another ancient standard, dating from the First Council held just after the Buddha's final passing away, which holds that rules can no longer be abolished.
What the Lord Buddha did leave for us was a set of principles that can be used as a touchstone to judge new circumstances.(25) These are known as 'The Great Standards'. Properly used they should protect against a wholesale dilution of the Rule.(26)
This is how the Great Standards are formulated:
•	"Bhikkhus, whatever I have not objected to, saying, 'This is not allowable,' if it fits in with what is not allowable, if it goes against what is allowable, that is not allowable for you.
•	 "Whatever I have not objected to, saying, 'This is not allowable,' if it fits in with what is allowable, if it goes against what is not allowable, that is allowable for you.
•	 "And whatever I have not permitted, saying, 'This is allowable,' if it fits in with what is not allowable, if it goes against what is allowable, that is not allowable for you.
•	 "And whatever I have not permitted, saying, 'This is allowable,' if it fits in with what is allowable, if it goes against what is not allowable, that is allowable for you. (Mahavagga VI.40)"
(BMCp27) (Also see VMIIp170)
These 'Great Standards' should, with care, enable bhikkhus to live according to the Vinaya Rule in, for example, isolated communities in non-Buddhist countries with non-tropical climates. They form a touchstone for modern conditions and substances.

Strictness and Blaming Others
Among the unenlightened, finding fault with others (rather than dealing with one's own problems) often seems to be one of our most damaging habitual tendencies. We seem able to twist whatever we want to this purpose. (Rule books are easily subverted to this and so please do not fall into this trap yourself!) For bhikkhus there are lots of cautions:
"Those who practise Vinaya without mindfulness and knowledge, are proud of their practice thinking that they are stricter than the others —and blame other bhikkhus saying that they are much worse (in Vinaya) than themselves. This is a blamable action when they have to live together and associate with other bhikkhus who may become disgusted with them and consequently (such wrong practising) bhikkhus bring trouble on themselves. Bhikkhus who behave correctly, on the other hand, will be joyful and happy because they feel that they are behaving properly." (VMIp19)
"One who knows the Vinaya well, knows just how far the Vinaya [texts] goes. He will thus know what is definite and what is open to interpretation. He will know that a monk who practises contrary to what is clearly stated in the Vinaya [texts] ...is rightly called alajjã [shameless]. But he will remain tolerant and in perfect harmony with those who follow a different practice from his own on matters not clearly covered by the Vinaya [texts] ..." (AB)
Disparate interpretations of the Vinaya rules can lead different communities into claiming that only their understanding is correct and everyone else is wrong. The Buddhist Monastic Code has this to say:
"There is, of course, a danger in being too independent in interpreting the tradition, in that strongly held opinions can lead to disharmony in the Community. ... At the same time, I hope that this book will show that there are many areas on which the [original Pàli] Vibhanga is unclear and lends itself to a variety of equally valid interpretations. For proof of this, we need only look at the various traditions that have developed in the different Theravadin countries, and even within each country. For some reason, although people tend to be very tolerant of different interpretations of the Dhamma, they can be very intolerant of different interpretations of the Vinaya and can get into heated arguments over minor issues having very little to do with the training of the mind.
"I have tried to make the point throughout [the Buddhist Monastic Code] that any interpretation based on a sound reading of the [Pàli] Canon should be respected: that each bhikkhu should follow the interpretations of the Community in which he is living, as long as they do not conflict with the Canon, so as to avoid conflict over minor matters in daily life; and that he should also show respect for the differing interpretations of other Communities where they too do not conflict with the Canon, so as to avoid the pitfalls of pride and narrow-mindedness.
"This is especially true now that monasteries of different nationalities are taking root in close proximity to one another in the West. In the past, Thais, Burmese, and Sri Lankans could look down on one another's traditions without danger of causing friction, as they lived in separate countries and spoke different languages. Now, however, we have become neighbours and have begun to speak common languages, so it is best that we take to heart the writings of the Chinese pilgrims who visited India centuries ago. They reported that even after the early Buddhists had split into 18 schools, each with its own Tripitaka [Canon] and Pàñimokkha [Rule], and the Mahayanists had added their texts to the tradition, bhikkhus belonging to different schools could be found living together in the same monastery, practising and conducting communal business in peace and harmony. Theirs is a worthy example. We should not let our minor differences become stumbling blocks on our way....
"We are dealing primarily with rules, but rules are not the only way to express disciplinary norms, and the texts we are surveying express their norms in a variety of forms: as rules, principles, models, and virtues. The different forms are best suited for different purposes. Principles, models, and virtues are meant as personal, subjective standards and tend to be loosely defined. Their interpretation and application are left to the judgment of the individual. Rules are meant to serve as more objective standards. To work, they must be precisely defined in a way acceptable to the Community at large. The compilers of the Canon, recognising this need, provided definitions for most of the terms in the rules, and the authors of the commentaries continued this task, carrying it out with even greater thoroughness. ...
"This need for precision, though, accounts for the weakness of rules in general as universal guides to behaviour. First, there is the question of where to draw the line between what is and is not an infraction of the rule. A clear break-off point is needed because rules —unlike principles— deal in two colours: black and white. In some cases, it is difficult to find a clear break-off point that corresponds exactly to one's sense of what is right and wrong, and so it is necessary to include the areas of grey either with the white or the black. In general, but not always, the Vibhanga's position is to include the grey with the white, and to rely on the principles of the Dhamma to encourage the individual bhikkhu to stay away from the grey."(27) (BMCp15–17)

The Rules
Having established a background, we will now turn to the rules themselves. Rather than following the traditional listing,(28) we will group rules (of varying seriousness) together under four headings that are relevant to or may be of interest to lay people:
 I	Harmlessness
II	Relationships
III	Possessions and Offering/s
IV	Right Livelihood for a Bhikkhu

I  Harmlessness

	We still harm other beings through our actions and speech just as they did thousands of years ago. (Although nowadays we use improved weapons.) Throughout its history Buddhism has been renowned for its tolerance and compassion towards all living beings(29) and this is reflected in the Vinaya. What we do and say profoundly affects other people and the Buddha's Teaching constantly reminds us of our responsibilities. It does this through the practice of mindfulness and meditation, and the refinement of the Five and Eight Precepts. The bhikkhu's rules cover this in more detail, ranging from the standard 'crime' of murder to destroying plant life.

Murder
The third Defeater (Pàràjika) Offence deals with murder. The original story describes how some bhikkhus wrongly grasped the Buddha's meditation teaching on the loathsome aspects of the body(30) and, falling into wrong view, committed suicide or asked someone to end their lives for them. It can be summarised like this:
"Intentionally bringing about the untimely death of a human being, even if it is still a fetus, is [an offence of Defeat.]" (Summary Pàr. 3; BMCp78)
A bhikkhu must not recommend killing, suicide or help arrange a murder. Also, because a 'human being' is defined as beginning with the human foetus, counting "from the time consciousness first arises in the womb", he must not advise or arrange an abortion.
There is no offence if death is caused accidentally or without intention.(31)

Killing
(i) The previous offence was one of Defeat for 'murder', this is one of Confession (pàcittiya) for killing animals. It originally arose because of Venerable Udàyin, a frequent delinquent, who detested crows so much that he shot them with arrows and then displayed their cut off heads.
"Deliberately killing an animal —or having it killed— is [an offence of Confession]." (Summary Pàc. 61; BMCp423)
'Animal' here is pàno, literally 'having breath'. The Commentary explains that it includes living beings down to the size of a bedbug. Elsewhere the texts forbid the killing of "even an ant".
Intention is an essential factor here. For example, if a bhikkhu only intends to sweep a path but accidentally kills ants in the process, there is no offence because it is not deliberate. However, ordering an animal to be killed is an offence.(32)

(ii-iii) The following two offenses of 'Confession' (pàcittiya) deal with the proper use of water that contains (visible) life.
If one pours fish and other tiny water-born creatures onto dry land, they are obviously going to die. (This is one reason for the bhikkhu's requisites including a cloth water filter.) Practically, this leads bhikkhus to take extra care that they cover water jars or regularly change water so that mosquito larvae do not have opportunity to breed. This shows how the Vinaya Rule emphasizes care and forethought as 'preventive medicine'.
The original offence was perpetrated by the notorious 'group-of-six' bhikkhus who used water that contained living beings. It can be summarised:
"Using water, knowing that it contains living beings that will die from one's use, is [an offence of Confession.]" (Pàc. 62; BMCp424)
In the second offence the monks of âëavã were doing repairs and 'sprinkled grass and clay' with water that they knew contained life. It is summarised:
"If a bhikkhu knows that water contains living beings but still pours it out onto grass or earth it is [an offence of Confession.] Also pouring —or having it poured— into such water anything that would kill the beings therein is [an offence of Confession.]" (Pàc. 20; See BMCp319)

Destroying Vegetation
•	The common belief at the time of the Buddha was that plants (and even soil) were 'one-facultied life'. Today we have ecologically 'green' beliefs which are often equivalent —at least they seem to lead to much the same attitudes.(33) (In Thailand, forest monks are well known as the best protectors of the jungle.)
(i) The eleventh Confession offence concerns destroying plant life. It originated because a bhikkhu harmed 'one-facultied life' by cutting down trees. He continued to cut down a tree even when the tree-deva asked him to stop, so she went and complained to the Buddha. This led to lay criticism of such behaviour and a rule was set down:
"Intentionally cutting, burning, or killing a living plant is [an offence of Confession.]" (Pàc. 11; BMCp300)
Destroying a living plant —for instance, felling a tree, uprooting a flower, burning grass— is an offence; as is picking fruit from a tree, a flower from a bush, etc.
(ii) Bhikkhus who live in tropical forest monasteries constantly have to protect both the jungle and themselves. When paths are overgrown, snakes and other dangerous 'creepy-crawlies' can be trodden on —and bite back! There also may be a need for firebreaks. One way that forest monks cope with this is a daily routine of sweeping the paths. However they are not allowed to dig or clear the land.
(iii) The tenth Confession offence arose when bhikkhus dug the ground and got others to dig and the local people criticised them because they considered the earth to be 'one-facultied life'. The rule is phrased like this:
"Should any bhikkhu dig soil or have it dug, it is [an offence of Confession.]" (Pàc. 10; BMCp292)
Digging, breaking the surface of the earth, lighting a fire on it, pounding a stake into it are all disallowed.(34) (If such 'earth' is more gravel or sand and would not be classed as 'soil' —without living creatures in it— it may then be dug.)
(iv) It is an offence of Wrongdoing(35) to damage or destroy fertile seeds or pips, or viable seedlings.(36)

•	One practical and long term effect of these rules is that they have steered bhikkhus away from involvement in agriculture. Such a development would have isolated bhikkhus from the lay community because they would no longer have needed to depend on alms food.

II Relationships

	Bhikkhus cannot live in complete isolation from lay people for the mutual support relationship is intrinsic to their way of life. However, it should never become an intimate relationship for this goes against the whole purpose of leaving the 'family life' with its endless 'enclosed' complications.(37)
The 'Holy Life' or Brahmacariya is one that checks the display of any form of sexual desire through the actions and speech of the bhikkhu (or nun).(38) It can then advance towards the ending of all desire through mind development and meditation. The most potent object for such sexual desire, that which the mind is most tenaciously grasping after, is associated with the opposite sex and so many rules involve this relationship.

Sexual Intercourse
•	The first offence of all the 227 listed rules of the Pàñimokkha is for a bhikkhu to engage in sexual intercourse. It remains a hot issue, perhaps even more so today, going by the spate of sexual scandals that rock the Buddhist world in both the East and the West.
The rule was originally laid down because of Venerable Sudinna. He was the son of a rich merchant, who left home to become a bhikkhu only after great opposition from his family. He went away to practise Dhamma and when he returned sometime later, his parents were overjoyed to see him back and plotted to lure him into the lay life again. They invited him for a meal and then laid out their wealth in front of him, piled up in two huge heaps of gold, while the wife he had left behind dressed herself in her most irresistibly alluring way. Venerable Sudinna remained unmoved by all of this. After telling them to throw the gold away in the river, he called his former wife, "sister". Nevertheless, when his old mother pleaded with him at least to give them an heir, he foolishly gave in and had sexual intercourse with his former wife.
Every form and variety of sexual intercourse is forbidden and the penalty is the heaviest one of Pàràjika or Defeat. (See page .)
This First Defeater Offence is summarised:
"A bhikkhu who engages in any form of sexual intercourse is Defeated." (Pàr. 1; See BMCp45)

Intimacy
•	The modern West has stories of sexual harassment so we should not find the following rules strange.
(i) Touching
 If a bhikkhu touches a woman in a sexual way, he commits a very serious offence requiring formal meetings of the Community and probation (Saïghàdisesa). (See page .) The scrupulous bhikkhu wants to remain above suspicion and so, if he can, he will avoid all physical contact.(39)
The rule was first set down by the Buddha after a brahmin and his wife had gone to inspect Ven. Udàyin's fine dwelling. As Ven. Udàyin was showing them around, he came up behind the lady and "rubbed up against her limb by limb". After they had left, the husband praised Ven. Udàyin but the wife was critical and explained what had happened. The brahmin then complained, "Isn't it even possible to take one's wife to a monastery without her being molested". This rule was then set down:
"Should any bhikkhu, overcome by lust, with altered mind, engage in bodily contact with a woman, or in holding her hand, holding a lock of her hair, or caressing any of her limbs, it entails initial and subsequent meetings of the Community." (Saïgh. 2; BMCp100)
To be at fault, the bhikkhu must usually do some action to bring contact with a woman while lust overcomes his mind. If he stumbles and bumps into a woman or vice-versa, or if he is accosted by a woman, as long as there is no intention to come into lustful contact there is no offence. However, the average bhikkhu's mind tends to be so quick and unruly —he is, after all, still in training and therefore unenlightened— that he may prefer to be super-cautious about such situations.
•	 The previous rules dealt with the bhikkhu's physical actions, the next two rules are offenses —again of the very serious category— concerning his wrong speech towards women.
(ii) Flirting
When many women visitors came together to look over Ven. Udàyin's dwelling, he spoke to them in a lewd, flirtatious way. So that some of them said, "It is improper, even from our husbands we wouldn't like to hear this sort of thing." Therefore, the Buddha laid down this rule:
"Should any bhikkhu, overcome by lust, with altered mind, address lewd words to a woman in the manner of young men to a young woman alluding to sexual intercourse, it entails initial and subsequent meetings of the Community." (Saïgh. 3; BMCp110)
(iii) Propositioning
The following rule is very relevant today when some misguidedly believe that submitting to sex with spiritual teachers can help in their spiritual development.
Again, it was originally a lustful Ven. Udàyin who was the cause of this offence. This time he suggested to a beautiful and faithful woman that she made a 'special' offering to him, that of sexual intercourse. The Buddha then set forth this rule:
"Telling a woman that she would benefit from having sexual intercourse with oneself is [an offence  requiring initial and subsequent meetings of the Community.]" (Summary(40) Saïgh. 4; BMCp117)
(iv) Matchmaking
•	The major issue today seems more to centre around divorce and the break down of marriage rather than arranging marriages. However one should note how these affairs can involve the bhikkhu and how he should guard against becoming too drawn in.
A bhikkhu should not officiate at weddings, except perhaps to chant a blessing afterwards and encourage the newly married couple to lead virtuous and faithful lives together based in generosity, virtue and meditation. He also has to be circumspect when counselling couples. (There is no offence in reconciling a married but estranged couple as long as they are not yet divorced.)
It was Ven. Udàyin who caused this rule to be set down because he involved himself in arranging many marriages and liaisons. When some of these failed, they blamed him for engaging in such affairs. The offence is summarized: 
"A bhikkhu who acts as a go-between, leading a man and woman to become husband and wife, [will require initial and subsequent meetings of the Community.]" (Saïgh. 5; Nvp6)(41)
(v) Private Meeting with a Woman
•	A bhikkhu not only has to be impeccable but also must be seen to be so. He sets an example for everyone and therefore must be beyond reproach. Any doubtful situations have to be clarified, which is how the next rules came about.(42) Here specifically female complaints. Some knowledge of these rules may also help to explain the sometimes seemingly antisocial attitude of some bhikkhus. (When bhikkhus are reluctant to enter into too private a conversation, it may reflect the unsuitability of the time and place for such a meeting.)
(a) The Two Aniyata, Indefinite or Undetermined Cases, were formulated after Ven. Udàyin went to visit a recently married young woman. He sat privately with her, just the two of them, talking about worldly affairs. The respected female lay-follower, Visàkhà, saw them sitting there and said to Ven. Udàyin, "This is improper, Ven. Sir, and unsuitable, that the master should sit in private like this. Although, Ven. Sir, the master may have no desire for sexual intercourse, there are unbelieving people who are difficult to convince." 
The Buddha therefore set this down: 
"Should any bhikkhu sit in private, alone with a woman in a seat secluded enough to lend itself (to the sexual act), so that a female lay follower whose word can be trusted,(43) having seen (them), might describe it as constituting any of the three cases —involving either Defeat, [Community Meetings], or [Confession]— then the bhikkhu, acknowledging having sat (there), may be dealt with for any of the three cases... or he may be dealt with for whichever case the female lay follower described. This case is undetermined." (Aniyata 1; BMCp157)
(b) The Second Indefinite Offence is similar to the first, except that the place is less secluded and therefore not suitable for sexual intercourse although it could still be grounds for the other 'sexual offenses'. It can be summarised:
"When a trusty female lay follower accuses a bhikkhu of having committed an offence [requiring either Community Meetings or Confession] while sitting alone with a woman in a private place, the Community should investigate the charge and deal with the bhikkhu in accordance with whatever he admits to having done." (Aniyata 2; BMCp162)

•	When a bhikkhu intentionally sits alone with a woman in private (as in the above two rules) it can lead on to more intimate behaviour or at least to misunderstandings from unexpected onlookers. To preclude such problems a bhikkhu needs a companion or 'chaperon', a man or boy old enough to understand what is inappropriate conduct. Therefore, if a lay woman —or women, for according to the rule it does not matter how many there are— sees a bhikkhu sitting alone in a private place, she should remember about this rule and not go and sit with him but await a more suitable time.
(c) The forty-fourth Confession Offence originated when the husband of a woman denounced Ven. Upananda for sitting alone with his wife. The ruling:
"Sitting or lying down with a woman or women in a private, secluded place with no other man present is [an offence of Confession.]" (Summarised Pàc. 44; BMCp385)
(d) The next Confession Offence follows on with Ven. Upananda, this time, being caught sitting alone with the man's wife in a 'private place'. This complements the previous rule for 'private place' is any place that is both out of sight and hearing of anyone else. (Examples would be: a bench in an open, deserted park; seats in a glassed-in porch or room; an open-air pavilion.) This time the ruling is:
"Should any bhikkhu sit in private, alone with a woman,(44) it is [an offence of Confession.]" (Pàc. 45; BMCp389)

(vi) Talking Privately
The previous rules dealt with physical proximity whereas this next rule concerns a bhikkhu and woman talking alone together.(45) It may appear strange that a rule should forbid completely private interviews with a bhikkhu alone. Yet if one reflects on how things have regularly gone wrong in such private spiritual counselling, it is easier to see that being safe is better than sorry —for the sake of everyone involved. Even if their conduct is completely pure, it still may lead to rumour and criticism.(46) 
The seventh Confession offence arose when Ven. Udàyin went to visit lay supporters. He sat close to the mother of the family at the front door, teaching her Dhamma in a quiet, confidential manner, and then approached the daughter-in-law who was by the side door and spoke to her in the same way. Both women mistakenly thought that he was flirting with the other, and criticised him, saying that Dhamma should be given in a clear and open way. As a result the Buddha eventually laid down that:
"Teaching more than six sentences [vàcà] of Dhamma to a woman, except in response to a question, is [an offence of Confession] unless a knowledgeable man is present." (Summarised Pàc. 7; BMCp285)
One can see from the origin of this rule that the point (again) is not that women cannot be taught Dhamma but that it should be done in a way that is completely open and above misinterpretation.
There are different interpretations as to exactly what is meant by 'six sentences' for the Pàli word vàcà can mean 'word', 'saying' or 'speech'. Even if there are many women, but no other man, it is still considered an offence.
(vii) Staying Together
The next rule deals with the proximity of bhikkhus and women at night. There are different interpretations of this rule and as it is a frequently asked question I will include extra translations with some discussion.(47)
	Rule Summary: "Lying down at the same time, in the same lodging, with a novice or layman for more than three nights running is [an offence of Confession.]" (Pàc. 5; BMCp276)
It originally arose when Ven. Anuruddha —one of the highly accomplished disciples of the Buddha— was travelling and asked the woman who owned the travellers' rest house if he could stay the night. She readily agreed and when more travellers arrived and Ven. Anuruddha let them share the room, she invited him to come and sleep inside instead. She had, however, become infatuated with him and tried to seduce him. When she saw that Ven. Anuruddha was completely unmoved she came to her senses and asked his forgiveness. Ven. Anuruddha then gave her a Dhamma talk which so delighted her that she took refuge in the Triple Gem. 
Here are several translations:
  "If a bhikkhu sleeps in a place where there is a surrounding wall and under the same roof with a woman, even for one night, it is [an offence of Confession.]" (Pàc. 6; Nvp14)
  "A monk who lies down with a female in the same building under the same roof and within walls, which are complete or almost complete, commits [a Confession Offence.]" (Pàc. 6; BBCp120)
  "Lying down at the same time in the same lodging with a woman is [an offence of Confession.]" (Pàc. 6; BMCp280)
There are complications concerning how this rule should be applied to modern conditions, for example:
 "Houses in tropical climates are often constructed without the system of doors and rooms found in colder climates, hence the importance of this rule. Bhikkhus obliged to stay in a Western-type house with lockable rooms in places where no [monastery] exists, as must sometimes happen during Dhammaduta [Spreading-Dhamma] work, will hardly be included here." (Pat. 1966 Ed.; p106)
"The Commentary (Samantapàsàdika) further explains that when there are many rooms in a single building —such as in a block of flats or apartments— the 'same sleeping place' is only those rooms which have a common 'entrance' (upacàra). It continues by explaining that an 'entrance' is where one washes one's feet before entering a set of rooms. Now each flat/apartment usually has a doormat on which one wipes one's feet before entering the flat/apartment and therefore, following the Commentary, the doormat marks the 'entrance' (upacàra) of a single 'same-sleeping-place'. In other words, separate flats/apartments become separate sleeping places for the purposes of this rule." (AB)
So there are different interpretations as to exactly what is meant by 'same place'. For example, does a locked door make a room a separate place? The Commentary suggests that if a building is divided into units that are not connected and each has a separate entrance then each unit counts as a 'place'. Therefore apartment blocks would be allowable. And hospitals?
In the West, where there are few if any monasteries, visiting bhikkhus have to decide how to follow these rules. It is not just a question of being strict but also about how it looks to lay people. Will they be suspicious about a bhikkhu staying too close to women? How will they feel if he stays in an expensive hotel room? A good standard is probably:
"...since the Canon gives no clear guidance on this point, the wise policy for an individual bhikkhu is to follow the views of the Community to which he belongs." (BMCp274)
(viii) Travelling Together
The next point to deal with is that of a bhikkhu travelling with a woman. This is also a very practical question and is often asked about.
 In the Buddha's time, a bhikkhu is about to set out on a journey when he meets a woman who has just quarrelled with her husband. She asks where he is going and if she can accompany him. He agrees. Enter husband searching for wife. He hears she had gone off with a monk and assumes that they are lovers and so when he catches up with the pair he thrashes the bhikkhu before explanations can be made. When the husband realizes his mistake, he apologises to the bhikkhu.
"Travelling by arrangement with a woman from one village to another is [an offence of Confession.]" (Summarised Pàc. 67; BMCp434)
Modern practice differs according to the Community and so lay women should bear this rule in mind when arranging transport for bhikkhus, or going to the same place as them.
"...it seems reasonable, as there is some uncertainty [as to whether it applies to more than just one monk and one woman,] to be more lenient allowing a journey with one or more women as long as there is at least one male accompanying the monk and the journey is not long. For example, a woman driving two monks in her car to an invitation in the next village seems no more reprehensible than two monks sitting down talking Dhamma to the women, but two women driving across Australia with two monks could be a cause for concern." (AB)

III Possessions and Offering/s

	The term 'bhikkhu' is defined as 'almsman', or 'mendicant'. He is one who depends on others for his material needs. This relationship of 'right livelihood'(48) incurs responsibilities: the bhikkhu must receive and use offerings in the right way(49) while the lay devotee needs to make material offerings in the right way and receive Dhamma teachings in the right way. The lay person gives material support and the bhikkhu properly receives and uses it in Dhamma-practice and so can eventually reciprocate with the 'highest of gifts' —Dhamma.
The proper needs of a bhikkhu and how they are supplied is extensively covered in the Vinaya Rule. If all bhikkhus were enlightened, we obviously would need few guidelines.  However, the average monk is still learning to eradicate greed, anger and delusion and so 'possessions' misused can easily lead to unskilful states of mind.

What Does a Bhikkhu Need?
The Buddha said that there are four necessities of life: clothing, food, lodging and medicine. These are necessary whether one is lay person or bhikkhu. The bhikkhu, however, should take a balanced stance towards them. Advertising and the latest fashion should not draw him for he should be solely concerned with simplicity and lack of attachment towards things.(50)
	"Bhikkhus who seek a living without violating the traditions of bhikkhus gain offerings in the right way. They should know how to make use of these offering properly and not do anything with them which will make the donor's faith decline." (VMIIp130)
It seems that the original requisites were 'basics' that they could conveniently carry around, for example, an alms bowl, three robes, a sitting cloth, a needle-case, and a waist band. However, with the passing of time extra allowance was given when the need arose, for instance, a water filter, a razor and its sheath, the stone and strop for sharpening it, and later the commentaries allowed an umbrella and sandals, and so on.

Does a Bhikkhu Beg?
The Buddha made it clear that bhikkhus should avoid begging if possible.(51) He gave this story about 'begging':
'A bhikkhu came to the Lord Buddha and complained about a great flock of noisy birds that came to roost at night in the forest surrounding his abode. The Buddha suggested that if he wanted them to go away he should go, many times throughout the night, and beg a feather from each bird. The birds, thinking, 'that monk wants a feather, and another, and another...', left the forest and never returned. The Buddha then explained that begging and hinting were unpleasant even to common animals, how much more so to human beings.'
A bhikkhu who is constantly begging for things displays his greedy state of mind. No one likes to see this and lay supporters may start by criticising him and then turn to blaming his Community or even the Buddha's Teaching. The Buddha, therefore, set down many rules to guide the bhikkhus about what is proper conduct.

How to Help a Bhikkhu —Invitation (Pavàraõà)
Normally a bhikkhu will not ask for things but wait for something to be offered. This is exemplified in the alms round. The bhikkhu makes no request, does not even look at people, although he may quietly wait to see if an offering is to be made, before moving on. One way that a lay person enables a bhikkhu to ask them for help is by making an invitation or pavàraõà.
The Buddha allowed a bhikkhu to accept pavàraõà or 'invitation'.(52) This is a faithful lay person's commitment to supply medicines if that particular bhikkhu should ever become ill. Although a sick monk is allowed to ask anyone for medicine, asking somebody who has already invited him with pavàraõà is obviously preferable. Therefore if a lay person meets a bhikkhu who seems worthy of help and support they may make an invitation (pavàraõà).
An invitation can be quite specific about what is offered. This will help stop misunderstandings from arising, for instance, when the bhikkhu thinks they have offered him more than the donor actually meant, and so that the lay person is not overwhelmed by extravagant requests. Quite a number of the rules deal with what and how much may be asked for when the donor makes this formal invitation.
For example, the original circumstances of the forty-seventh Confession Offence were as follows:
A lay supporter possessed much 'medicinal ghee' and so he invited the monks to make use of it during the following four months. A lot of the medicine was still left so he extended his invitation for another four months and then extended it for life. The Buddha allowed this. However, that same lay donor had once criticised the 'group-of-six' monks because of their previous improper conduct and so they decided to take revenge by asking him for an impossibly large amount of medicine (ghee) and then criticising him when he could not immediately produce what he had promised. This rule was set down:
"A bhikkhu who is not ill may accept (make use of) a four-month invitation [pavàraõà] to ask for requisites. If he should accept (make use of) it for longer than that —unless the invitation is renewed or is permanent— it is [an offence of Confession.]" (Pàc. 47; BMCp393)
The bhikkhu therefore is not normally allowed to ask for more than what is specified in the formal invitation. The lay donor wanting to offer support can therefore be quite specific(53) about what is offered and how long that invitation will last. Obviously, if circumstances change or the request is unreasonable, the donor has no obligations —and a conscientious bhikkhu is always sensitive about this.
When the invitation is more vague —for example, a lay person may just say, "If you need anything, Bhante, let me know"— the bhikkhu should not exceed the spirit of the invitation.
Some Communities consider that an invitation in which the lay person does not specify any time limit is only valid for four months and asking beyond that is an offence.
A bhikkhu is always allowed to ask for requisites from his relatives without having formal invitation first. (Whether they actually supply anything is, of course, up to them.) 'Relatives' are considered to be those on the mother's or father's side through seven generations: three in the past, for example, to one's great-grandmother; and three to the future. Here 'in-laws' are not counted as relatives. (See VMIp94)
•	For other Rules involving Pavàraõà Invitations and their origin stories see Appendix G. 

What does a Bhikkhu Possess?
The ideal possessions of the bhikkhu are just his basic requisites that we will mention below. However, most bhikkhus will have more than this —ranging from items like soap and toothpaste, candles and matches, a pen and books, a watch or clock, a flashlight or torch, to more sophisticated things appropriate to their environment. Anything that is given to him (that is allowable) is his to keep and he is allowed to give his things away if it is done in the right way and does not cause the donors faith to decline.(54) However, disposal or appropriation of anything owned by the Community, or belonging to the monastery, is strictly controlled.
"to distribute things among fellow Dhamma-friends is suitable as well as giving to laymen who work in the monastery, or those who help with a bhikkhu's work. They should be given to such people as the cost of food and as the cost of labour, or they should be given the things which a bhikkhu has received so that they can be used and not wasted, for this will be proper." (VMIIp130)
After a bhikkhu dies his possessions will normally revert to the Sangha:
"Articles belonging to bhikkhus and novices who have died have the sangha [Community] as owner, that is they are the inheritance of the sangha." (VMIIp151)

Receiving Gifts
When a gift is received there are two Rules to guard against a bhikkhu misdirecting it.(55)
The first of these arose when a guild was preparing to make an offering of a meal and some cloth to the whole Community whereupon the 'group-of-six' bhikkhus arrived and pressured the donors into giving the cloth to them instead:
"Should any bhikkhu knowingly divert to himself gains that had been intended for a Community, it is [an offence of Confession with Forfeiture.]" (Nis. Pàc. 30; BMCp256)
"'Gains' here refers to robes, alms food, abodes and medicines ...and other allowable things. [They are] gifts dedicated as offerings to the Sangha but not yet offered. A bhikkhu diverts such gifts to himself by asking directly for them or by roundabout speech so that the donor will give them to him." (Pat. 1969 Ed.; p159)
In the first Rule the wrongly obtained 'gift' must be forfeited to another bhikkhu(s) whereas the following complementary rule is an offence of Confession:
"Persuading a donor to give to another individual a gift that he or she had planned to give to a Community —when one knows that it was intended for the Community— is [an offence of Confession.]" (Pàc. 82; BMCp461)

What can be offered?
As has been mentioned above, the Buddha said that there are four necessities for life(56): 
	1. 	Clothing
	2. 	Food or 'edibles'
	3. 	Shelter or lodging 
	4. 	Medicine

(1) Clothing

The basic clothing that the Buddha originally suggested for a bhikkhu was made from discarded cloth ('rags') sewn together and dyed.(57) They were just rectangular pieces of cloth worn wraparound style and in the beginning it seems that there were two robes —a sarong skirt-like robe (antaravàsaka) tied with a belt; and a bigger piece to cover the upper part of the body(58) (uttaràsaïga). When the cold weather required more protection, the Buddha allowed another large outer robe that was double-layered (saïghàñi).
Some rules limit the size of robes(59) because cloth was then expensive in India due to the simple methods of spinning and weaving. Also, so that the robe would not be worth stealing, it was cut into panels which were then sewn together based on the design of paddy fields seen from a mountain:(60)

Robe pattern
When cloth is offered(61) and has been properly cut and sewn, it has to be dyed. Traditionally, vegetable dyes were used. Different plants and woods when boiled up will produce slightly different shades of dye colour —the Pàli  text calls the standard colour kàsàya or kàsàva, translated as 'dun-coloured dye-water'(62) — so there is some variety. When bhikkhus from different communities come together their different shades of 'yellow' dyed robes makes this vividly obvious. (The destruction of the SE Asian forests has led to chemical dyes been used more and more, so that cloth offered nowadays is often pre-dyed.)
Slightly varied styles of wearing the traditional set of three robes have developed over the years in different countries.(63) But basically, the rectangular shaped robe is put around the body and the two vertical edges are folded or rolled together. Then either it is tucked in and secured with a belt (for the skirt-robe) or, for the larger outer robes, the rolled edge is flicked over the left shoulder and pinched under the left arm so that it will not slip off. There are various techniques for this. (It needs some practice!)
In addition to this required set of the 'triple robe', which every bhikkhu must have and look after, there are extra cloths that can be used occasionally.(64)

The Robe Offering Time (Kañhina)
The month following the three months of the Rains Retreat —sometime in the October–November period— is the traditional time for renewing bhikkhus' robes. In ancient times, this was when bhikkhus would help each other in hand-sewing cloth into new robes —using a special wooden kañhina frame. 
This is the time when lay supporters often make a special offering of cloth and other requisites to all the monks at a particular monastery. Nowadays, a sewing machine is normally used but all the monks still try to help in the marking out, cutting, sewing or dying process. The cloth has to be offered, sewn and dyed, so that it is a finished robe and ready to wear within the same day. If this procedure is carried through correctly, the bhikkhus are then entitled to special allowances for the next few months. 
The Kañhina Ceremony is optional (unlike some other observances which are mandatory) and requires a quorum of eligible bhikkhus. It has, however, generally become an important festival and alms-giving occasion.

(2) Edibles

Alms food
As has been mentioned above, the Buddha said that there are four necessities of life: clothing, food, lodging and medicine.
The Buddha suggested that the basic source of food for bhikkhus was that received on alms round (piõóapàta). This daily dependence on alms food reminds both the bhikkhus and the lay devotees of their interdependence and also prevents the bhikkhu from becoming too isolated from the lay community. He 'meets' them every day and eats the food that they share with him. Several important rules are concerned with this as well as a major section of the Sekhiya Training rules.(65) (See below.)
An alms round is not considered begging for the bhikkhu does not solicit anything but is ready mindfully to receive any alms that lay people may wish to give. Although alms food may sometimes be meagre, he is always expected to be grateful for whatever he is given. It is surprising how particular we can be about what food we like to eat and what complications that can cause. This is reflected in the way rules concerning 'edibles' are classified, which may seem very complex especially when the bhikkhu's life is supposed to be so simple. It should be bourn in mind that the rules often deal with extraordinary circumstances and try to prevent them from becoming the norm.
When the 'group-of-six' monks in the Buddha's time solicited 'special foods' and ate them themselves, the lay people criticised this saying, "Who isn't fond of good food and sweets?". The Buddha therefore laid down this rule:
 "There are these finer staple foods, i.e. ghee, fresh butter, oil, honey, sugar/molasses, fish, meat, fresh milk, and curds. Should any bhikkhu who is not ill, having asked for finer staple foods such as these for his own sake, then eat them, it is [an offence of Confession.]" (Pàc. 39; BMCp367)
"There are sumptuous foods, namely foods mixed with ghee, butter, oil, honey, molasses, fish, meat, milk and curd; and a monk who, though not sick, asks for such sumptuous foods for himself and eats them commits [an offence of Confession.]" (Pàc. 39; BBCp127)
The ancient commentators suggest that these 'finer foods' are actually made when one mixes rice, for example, with butter or fish, etc.
An exception is made for a monk who is ill, and a bhikkhu can ask for special food for the sake of a fellow monk who is sick. (He is always allowed to ask a relative or someone who has offered a Pavàraõà Invitation.)
A whole section of the seventy-five Sekhiya Training guidelines is concerned with how a bhikkhu receives and eats his alms food. Although 'table manners' may differ from country to country, and from age to age, these Sekhiya rules still largely conform to what is considered good manners:
"I will receive alms food appreciatively."(66) (Sekhiya #27)
"When receiving alms food, I will focus my attention on the bowl." (Sekhiya #28) 
This explains why the bhikkhu may not look at the donor when accepting food; he is concentrating on properly receiving it.
"I will receive/eat (bean-)curries in the right proportion to the rice." (Sekhiya #29/34) 
It is suggested that this was laid down so that bhikkhus on alms round would not pass by people offering plain rice in favour of better quality food. (See VMIp211)
"I will receive alms food only until it reaches the rim of the bowl." (Sekhiya #30) 
However, on festival or special occasions the bhikkhu's bowl may be emptied so that he can share in every one's offering.(67)
"I will eat alms food attentively."(68) (Sekhiya #31) 
"When eating alms food, I will look only into the bowl." (Sekhiya #32) 
This is also why the bhikkhu should not be expected to talk while he is eating for this will distract his attention.
 "I will not cover up curries or other food with rice out of a desire to get more." (Sekhiya #36) 
If donors think that the monk has only plain rice in his bowl, they may give him some 'better' food.
"When I am not sick, I will not ask for curries or rice for my own benefit." (Sekhiya #37) 
Other Sekhiya rules seem aimed at bhikkhus eating from their bowl using their fingers in the traditional way of India:(69)
"I will not make up an overlarge mouthful of food; nor open my mouth until the portion of food has been brought to it; nor put my fingers into my mouth; nor speak with my mouth full; I will not eat stuffing out my cheeks; shaking my hand about; scattering grains of rice about; putting out my tongue; making a champing sound; (or drink) making a sucking sound; licking my hands; scraping the bowl; eat licking my lips. I will not take hold of a vessel of water with my hand soiled with food."

The Four Sorts of 'Edibles'
Nutriment-intake is also regulated by way of time. Anything that a bhikkhu can put into his mouth is classified in four groups,(70) which specify the limits during which he can consume or store them:
(i)	Food	—Limited from Dawn to Noon (Yàvakàlika)
(ii)	 Fruit juices	—Limited to One Day (Yàmakàlika)
(iii)	 Medicines or Tonics—Limited to Seven Days (Sattàhakàlika)
(iv)	 Other Medicines	—For All One's Life (Yàvajãvika)

(i) Food
In the West the first meal of the day is 'breakfast' and for the bhikkhu this is literally true for he will not have taken any food since the previous morning. Food intake is limited to the hours between dawn and noon. The practice of not eating in the afternoon is a very old tradition being mentioned in the earliest Suttas.(71) It is also included in the Ten Precepts of the novice and the Eight Precepts of the lay devotee spending the Uposatha Observance Day in the monastery.
Here 'food' refers to things like cooked grains; sweets made from flour, beans, etc.; fish; meat; fresh milk and sour milk; ... fruits, tubers and all 'main course' foods. (See VMIIp131–133)

Right and Wrong Times
When these staple foods go beyond their time limit (i.e. after noon) a bhikkhu will incur an offence if he consumes them. The original story shows the complications that can arise from leaving the monastery at the wrong time:
The 'group-of-seventeen' bhikkhus —another set of frequent misdoers— went out one afternoon to enjoy themselves at a festival outside the city. When lay people saw them they gave them a meal and food to take back to the monastery. The Buddha therefore laid down this rule:
"Should any bhikkhu chew or consume staple or non-staple food at the wrong time, it is [an offence of Confession.]" (Pàc. 37; BMCp362)
This 'wrong time' is defined from noon until dawn the following day.(72)
A bhikkhu is still at fault even if he genuinely miscalculates the time or mistakes an item of 'food' for a 'medicine'.(73) ('Medicines' will be dealt with below.)
An ill bhikkhu has no exemption from this rule and so he likewise should not take food in the afternoon.(74)
A bhikkhu, therefore, is allowed to eat between dawn and midday. There are other rules concerning how many 'meal invitations' he may accept during this time. (See below.)

Offering 'Edibles'
We have already mentioned the bhikkhu's alms round and his dependence on receiving food from lay supporters. But how is the gift made and how is it properly received? This is accomplished in quite a formal way yet it can still be confusing to lay devotees for different monks receive an offering in slightly different ways.
The rule that explains about making an allowable offering to bhikkhus arose when a certain bhikkhu lived in a charnel ground, wearing robes made from rags collected from there. He also subsisted on the food left there, following custom, by relatives of the dead person for 'departed spirits'. The lay people criticised him, wrongly suspecting he might also be feeding on human flesh and so the Buddha set down this rule:(75)
 "Should a bhikkhu take into his mouth an edible that has not been given —except for water and tooth-cleaning sticks— it is [an offence of Confession.]" (Pàc. 40; BMCp370)
 "A monk who puts in his mouth, any nutriment, which has not been proffered to him, commits [a Confession offence.]" (Pàc. 40; BBCp127)

How to make an Offering
Present day practice regarding this rule (Pàc. 40) varies so much because of the intricacy of interpretation. But in general, anything(76) that goes into the mouth, food or 'medicines', should be properly given. That means it should be:
(a) given by means of the body, (e.g. given by hand), or by something attached to the body, (e.g. a spoon), or by throwing, (e.g. tossing a lump of sticky rice into the bowl).
(b) given so that the donor and the bhikkhu are (literally) within arms reach (1.25 metres) of each other.
(c) received by means of the body, (e.g. received in the hand) or by something attached to the body, (e.g. the monk's bowl or, in Thailand, the monk's receiving cloth)(77).
The Commentaries expand the details of the correct way that food should be given:
(d) the offered food should not be so heavy that an average size man cannot lift it.(78)
(e) the donor makes a gesture (of respect) when making the offering.(79)
 In some monasteries, when properly offered food is touched or moved by lay people, even accidentally, it has to be re-offered.

Storing Food
After formally receiving food a bhikkhu is not allowed to store it away for another day. This is another rule that supports the mendicant ideal and the interdependence of monk and lay person, and stops the bhikkhu becoming attached to his favourite tastes. 
The case originally arose when a monk coming back from alms round would eat some food and then dry any remaining rice in the sun to store for the next days' meals. In this way he did not have to go on an alms round every day. It can be summarised:
"Eating food that a bhikkhu —oneself or another— formally received on a previous day is [an offence of Confession.]" (Pàc. 38; BMCp367)
After the daily meal —often the monks of the community will gather to share this— all that day's excess food may be distributed among whoever is present so that nothing is wasted or left over.(80)
Lay people are also allowed to deposit food in the properly approved store room so that it can be offered to the monks on another day. (If the lay people store it there, the monks will not be counted as having formally received it.)

Meal Invitations
It is traditional for lay devotees on special occasions to invite bhikkhus to go and have a meal at their house. However there are certain rules that the bhikkhu must remember when accepting such an invitation:
(a) The origin of this first rule displays the care that a bhikkhu should take when accepting such an invitation: 
A poor workman was inspired to invite the Buddha and all the bhikkhus of the town for a meal, and he insisted they still come even when the Buddha cautioned him about the large number of monks involved. Some bhikkhus assumed that he would not be able to afford very much food and so they first went on an alms round and ate beforehand. Therefore when they came to go for the poor man's meal they could not eat very much —even though there was in fact plenty of food because other people had helped to support the poor workman's faith by sending round donations of food. The poor workman became upset saying, "How can you eat elsewhere... am I not competent to give sufficient?".
The rule is summarised:
"Eating a meal(81) before going to another meal to which one was invited, or accepting an invitation to one meal and eating elsewhere instead, is [an offence of Confession] except when one is ill or at the time of giving cloth or making robes." (Pàc. 33; BMCp352)
 Should a bhikkhu seem somewhat reluctant to accept your invitation, be aware that he may not be able to change his acceptance of a previous invitation. There is, however, an allowance for the bhikkhu to 'share' or transfer his invitation to another bhikkhu or novice so that he can accept a new one. Even so, it is considered good manners first to contact the original donors about this. 
(b) Another rule originated like this: 
Ven. Devadatta(82) attempted to take over the Sangha and then tried to kill the Buddha. The Sangha informed the local inhabitants about Ven. Devadatta's behaviour so that it would not reflect on the Sangha as a whole. Ven. Devadatta then found alms so difficult to obtain that he and his group solicited alms —"having asked and asked"— and the lay people criticised them for such unseemly conduct.
The Buddha therefore laid down that:
"Eating a meal to which four or more individual bhikkhus have been specifically invited —except on special occasions(83)— is [an offence of Confession.]" (Summary Pàc. 32; BMCp348)
  Another interpretation of this rule requires that bhikkhus
" ... do not accept the invitations of those who mention the names of the foods to be offered. The inviter who understands this, makes invitation just in this way: "I invite you to receive alms-food", or, "I invite you to take breakfast ... or lunch". By speaking in this way it is possible for bhikkhus to accept." (Pat. 1969 Ed.; p161)
 If the community lives by this second interpretation one should be careful when inviting bhikkhus for a meal not to mention the specific food which one intends to offer.

Meat
In western countries vegetarianism has recently increased in popularity and this has led to some questioning about bhikkhus and meat eating. (In less materially developed countries the question is more about what, if anything, is there to eat.)
Monks and the question of eating meat is an old one which was originally raised by the 'renegade monk' Ven. Devadatta. He asked the Buddha to prohibit bhikkhus from eating fish and flesh in what seems was a ploy to take over the leadership of the Sangha. (The 'stricter ascetic' tactic). The Buddha had already made(84) a strict rule  for both bhikkhus and lay people about not taking life, and so He did not agree to Ven. Devadatta's new formulation.
However, He did forbid bhikkhus from eating meat and fish under the following circumstances: 
If a bhikkhu sees, hears or suspects that it has been killed for him, he may not eat it.(85)
If a bhikkhu is given meat on alms round and he has no knowledge about how the animal died(86) he has to 'receive it with attentiveness'. (See the Sekhiya Trainings.) He should be grateful and recollect that any food he receives is what enables him to continue to live the bhikkhu life, and that as a mendicant he is not in a position to choose what he gets. If he later comes to know the family and they ask him about Dhamma, he will be able to explain the precept about not killing. This may cause them to reflect on their attitude to meat eating.
Finally it comes down to the lay person who goes to the market to buy food to give to the bhikkhus. If they are vegetarian themselves or like to give vegetarian food then the bhikkhu should receive that food with 'appreciation' —especially if it means that fewer animals are being slaughtered. Nevertheless, it should not become a political issue where other people are attacked for their behaviour.

Offering Fruit: Kappiya
Some Communities are strict about one of the minor (dukkaña) rules concerned with fruit seeds. Fruits with seeds that can germinate and roots (bulbs, tubers) that can be planted again should be made 'allowable' or kappiya for bhikkhus. An unordained person can do this by touching it with fire, by drawing a knife over it, or by marking it with a finger nail.
In some monasteries, there is a ceremony(87) where the lay person offering the fruit, makes it 'allowable' for the bhikkhu to eat. For example, this may be done with an orange by slightly cutting the peel when the monk says, "Kappiyaü karohi" ("Make this allowable") and answering him with, "Kappiyaü Bhante" ("It is allowable, Ven. Sir."). If there are many oranges, and if they are all together and touching, making one fruit 'allowable' makes them all allowable'. 
In other communities, if the donor offers fruit already 'damaged' (e.g. peeled or cut) it is considered sufficient.
There is no need for this ceremony with seedless fruit or if the seeds are unripe so that they cannot regenerate. Also, if the bhikkhu carefully eats certain sorts of fruits —for instance, mangoes, jackfruit, plumbs, peaches, prunes, etc.— without damaging the seed, stone or pips, then there is no offence.

Food in the Wilderness
The following rule again shows the interdependence and care that must be cultivated between bhikkhus and those that support them.
In the Buddha's time some ladies were ambushed and raped on their way to give food to bhikkhus living in a dangerous jungle area. Their family criticised the bhikkhus for not warning them of the hazards. The rule can be summarised:
"Eating an unannounced gift of staple or non-staple food, after accepting it in a dangerous wilderness abode when one is not ill is [an offence of Acknowledgement.]" (Pàtidesaniya 4; BMCp488)

(ii) Fruit juices
Bhikkhus should not eat food after midday but they can drink 'fruit juice' any time throughout the day.(88) This is called yàmakàlika and is a juice-drink made from crushed and strained fruit.(89)
When offering fruit juice it is important that it is well strained so that no pulp or fruit particles remain, for the fruit itself counts as food and so cannot be consumed in the afternoon. Some places in Thailand will strain the juice in a cloth filter seven times to make sure, but the main point is that the filter is fine enough.(90)
"Juice drinks include the freshly squeezed juice of sugar cane, lotus root, all fruits except grain, all leaves except cooked vegetables, and all flowers except the [bassia latifolia or liquorice?] (Mahavagga.VI.35.6). According to the Commentary, the juice must be strained, and may be warmed by sunlight but not heated over a fire." (BMCp339)
The Vinayamukha Commentary suggests that because they mixed sugar in with the fruit juice it may have fermented slightly overnight and therefore it is prohibited from keeping beyond the next dawn.
Some communities will not accept fruit juice made from 'large fruits':
"In discussing the Great Standards, the Commentary says that grain is a "great fruit," and thus the juice of any one of nine large fruits —palmyra fruit, coconut, jack fruit, breadfruit, bottle gourd, white gourd, musk melon, water melon, and squash— would fall under the same class as the juice of grain... From this judgment, many Communities [in Thailand] infer that the juice of any large fruit, such as pineapple or grapefruit, would also be classed as a non-staple food [and therefore could not be consumed in the afternoon.]" (BMCp339)

(iii) Medicines or Tonics
We have dealt above with food and fruit juice, there is now the category of 'tonic-medicines'. These should be consumed within seven days of their being offered and are called sattàhakàlika.
The original circumstances arose in the Buddha's time when Venerable Pilindavacha's great feats of psychic power made him so famous that he received many offerings of the five 'tonics'. He distributed these among other monks but there was so much that they stored them up and were overrun by rats. Visiting lay people criticised them for "storing up goods in abundance like a king". The Buddha therefore set down this rule:
"Keeping any of the five tonics— ghee, fresh butter, oil, honey, or sugar/molasses— for more than seven days is [an offence of Confession with Forfeiture.] (Summarised Nis. Pàc. 23; BMCp242)
There are various translations and interpretations about these 'tonic-medicines' —according to different Communities and different countries. Some places consider only liquids allowable while a few communities will drink only plain water in the afternoon. Therefore lay devotees need to enquire about the practice of their local Community and follow that way.(91) The following are three views coming from the Thai tradition:
"[There are] five kinds of medicines arranged under this heading: ghee (clarified butter), butter, oils, honey, and molasses. ...By this allowance it should be regarded that the exalted Buddha allowed the fat [oil] of [all] animals. ...Fresh sugar-cane juice may [later] become fermented and so should be included in [the One Day 'fruit juice' medicines rather than these Seven Day 'tonics'.]" (VMIIp139–140)
"The five medicines —ghee, navanãtaü, oil, honey, and sugar— were allowed by the Buddha to be consumed by 'sick' monks at any time of the day or night. According to the Mahàvagga, these five were 'agreed upon as medicines and, although they served as nutriment for people, were not considered as substantial food'. The degree of infirmity required before a monk is allowed to consume these [tonic-]medicines is a controversial point. ...It seems that feeling rundown or feeling tired after physical exertion would be sufficient cause to be able to make use of the Five Medicines.
"Some say that navanãtaü is butter, some say that it is cheese. However, there is a reasonable argument following the Buddha's Four Great Standards (Mahàvagga, chapter 6 verse 40) to state that butter and cheese are sufficiently similar to the real navanãtaü and dissimilar to what has been disallowed by the Buddha to make both butter and cheese also allowable, along with navanãtaü as one of the Five Tonics. In the West, cheese is sometimes considered as a food and monks seen eating it in the afternoon or evening may be looked down upon by some lay people. It seems better in such situations, only to make use of the allowance to eat cheese in the afternoon or evening when there is more than mere tiredness but a debilitating illness instead.
"...It may be that the [tonic-] medicine is given up, with no expectation of its return, before seven days have passed; in which case if, without any prompting by the monk, it should be offered again that medicine may be accepted and kept a further seven days." (AB)
"...if sugar has a little flour mixed with it simply to make it firmer —as sometimes happens in sugar cubes and blocks of palm sugar— it is still classed as a tonic as it is still regarded simply as 'sugar'." If the flour is for more food-like reasons then it would be counted as food. (BMCp238–9)

(iv) Lifetime Medicines
In the beginning, the basic (herbal) medicines allowed by the Buddha were those pickled in urine. Later, nearly all other types came to be considered allowable. (See the separate allowance above for 'tonic medicines'.)
Medicines or 'edibles' that may be consumed without time limitation are called yàvajãvika. The Texts mention different sorts of herbal medicines such as: plant roots, e.g. ginger, turmeric, sweet flag, etc.; decoctions, such as of the neem or nux-vomica; tree-leaves, such as neem-leaves, tulsi or holy basil; fruits, such as long peppers, myrobalan, wormwood; resins, such as asafoetida; salts, such as sea-salt, rock salt, etc. Any other medicine similar to these that is not reckoned to be food is included under this 'lifetime' category.(92)
 Modern western medicines are usually included —using the Great Standards— under this category and therefore can be taken at any time of the day and kept as long as necessary.

(3) Money

(i) Stealing
Stealing is universally condemned and forms one of the basic Five Precepts of any Buddhist. For the bhikkhu it is covered by the heaviest penalty, that of Defeat, being the second Pàràjika.
The rule was originally set down after Venerable Dhaniya, by deception, carried off some of the king's timber to make himself a hut:
"A bhikkhu who takes something which the owner has not given to him and which has a value of five màsaka[-'coins'] (or more) [is Defeated]" (Summary Pàr. 2; Nvp5)
Or:
"The theft of anything worth 1/24 ounce troy of gold(93) or more is [an offence of Defeat.]" (Summary Pàr. 2; BMCp65)
As 'Defeat' means the absolute termination of the perpetrator's bhikkhu-life his stealing should be more than a petty theft. Therefore for this to be an offence, the value of the stolen object must be such that, as it states in the original Pàli: "kings... would banish him, saying... 'You are a thief!'". In modern America this would be equivalent to grand larceny.
The bhikkhu must have an intention to steal for this to be an offence. If an apparent theft happens without his knowledge or connivance, or by mistake without any design on his part, it is no offence. However, fraud, breach of trust, embezzlement, tax evasion, smuggling, breach of copyright, etc., are included under this rule.

(ii) Bhikkhus and Wealth
There are many other important rules covering how bhikkhus deal with wealth and money. These came to be set down because donations coming from a lay devotee's faith in Dhamma might, on mis-occasion, lead to the corrupting of the bhikkhu-life. Although these rules may seem relatively straight forward, there are various interpretations and ways of actual practice. And the practice often does not coincide with the theory. Yet it certainly remains a very important aspect of Vinaya, guarding against forgetfulness of the real way to happiness:
"Bhikkhus, in abandoning the use of money, make real their abandonment of worldly pursuits and show others by example that the struggle for wealth is not the true way to find happiness." (BMCp215)
"The non-acceptance of money has always been one of the fundamental observances of those who have left the world. Money is the measure of wealth and to most people material wealth is the goal of life. In the bhikkhu's renunciation of money he emphatically demonstrates his complete rejection of worldly pursuits. At one stroke he sets himself significantly apart from the vast majority of people and becomes a constant reminder to all that a life based on the struggle to accumulate money is not the only way to live. Through giving up money he gives up much of his power to manipulate the world and to satisfy his desires. Thus, as the Buddha said in the Samyutta Nikàya:
"Whoever agrees to gold or money, headman, also agrees to the five strands of sensual pleasure, and whoever agrees to the five strands of sensual pleasure, headman, you may take for certain that this is not the way of a recluse, that this is not the way of a Buddhist monk." (See P.T.S. Kindred Sayings, Vol. 4 p232)
"A Bhikkhu who does not accept money inspires great faith in Buddhism amongst the laity; according to the following quote he is likened unto a 'shining example' —whereas the bhikkhu who does accept money is likened unto a 'blemish' or 'stain':
"Bhikkhus, ...there are these four stains because of which 'samanas and brahmins glow not, shine not, blaze not. What are these four? Drinking alcoholic beverages ...indulging in sexual intercourse ...accepting gold and money ...obtaining requisites through a wrong mode of livelihood." (A.II.53)' (AB)
"In the act of accepting money, or having it accepted in one's name one is accepting all the cares, responsibilities, and dangers that come with its ownership; in the act of arranging a trade, one is accepting responsibility for the fairness of the trade: that it undervalues neither the generosity of the person who donated the money, nor the goods and services of the person receiving the money in exchange." (BMCp197)

(iii) Should a Bhikkhu Accept Money?
Money and the bhikkhu's(94) relationship to it are important issues. However, it seems to be treated with varying degrees of seriousness, depending on the strictness or laxness of the bhikkhus of a particular community. This is one of the major areas where lay devotees can assist the bhikkhu in living a life in harmony with the Vinaya. Notice mention of a steward (veyyàvaccakara) in the following rules. 
(a) The Rule
The rule about a bhikkhu accepting money came to be made when Ven. Upananda went to visit his regular supporters on alms round. The meat that had been set aside for him that morning had instead been given to the family's hungry son. The householder wished to give something else to make up for it and asked what he could offer to the value of a kahàpana coin. Ven. Upananda inquired if he was making a gift of a kahàpana coin to him, and then took the money away. Lay people were disgusted with this, saying, "Just as we lay people accept money, so too do these Buddhist monks!". 
This Rule has been variously translated:
 "Should any bhikkhu take gold and silver, or have it taken, or consent to its being deposited (near him), it is to be forfeited and confessed." (Nis. Pàc. 18; BMCp214)
 "Should any bhikkhu pick up, or cause to be picked up or consent to the deposit of gold or silver, this entails Confession with Forfeiture." (Nis. Pàc. 18; Pat., 1966 Ed. p42)
 "A monk, who accepts gold or money or gets another to accept for him, or acquiesces in its being put near him, commits [an offence requiring Confession with Forfeiture.]" (Nis. Pàc. 18; BBCp116)
 "If a bhikkhu himself receives gold and silver (money) or gets someone else to receive it, or if he is glad about money that is being kept for him, it is [an offence of Confession with Forfeiture.]" (Nis. Pàc. 18; Nvp11)
According to the Commentary, there is 'no consent' if a bhikkhu refuses to accept the money: by word —telling the donor that it is not proper to receive money; by deed —gesturing to that effect; by thought— thinking that this is not proper.(95)
Practically, this rule is understood by various bhikkhus in different ways. This ranges from some monks who seek to circumvent the rule completely by saying that paper money is just paper and therefore not "gold and silver"  (jàtaråpa-rajata) and so falls outside the rule, to the following more strict opinions.
The Pàli terms jàtaråpa-rajata are defined as 'gold of any sort' and, while it is also 'silver' in other contexts, here it is defined as màsaka (coins) of different materials (copper, wood, lac) whatever is used in business, i.e. money. 
"At present the term would include coins and paper currency, but not checks, credit cards, bank drafts, or promissory notes, as these —on their own and without further identification of the persons carrying them— do not function as true currency." (BMCp215)
"The term jàtaråpa-rajata refers firstly to personal adornments (of gold and silver), secondly to ingots, thirdly to råpiya, which are for buying and selling, referring not only to gold and silver but anything which can be used in this way. All the above-mentioned things are included in this term. The phrase, 'be glad at the money kept for him' [as in translation above] suggests that if it is only cittuppàda (the coming into existence of a thought), he would not [fall into an offence,] so it must refer to the action of receiving it and holding the right over it." (Pat. 1969 Ed.; p158)
"Money given to a steward of the Sangha (veyyàvaccakara), for the use of bhikkhus or to stewards of individual bhikkhus, is not given to the bhikkhus for them to possess. The steward holds the money of the donors in trust, and should a bhikkhu have legitimate reason to make use of this (travel for Dhamma, Requisites, Dhamma-books, etc.), he can request the steward to supply him with the article needed. He cannot purchase it himself.
"This rule concerns money of which a bhikkhu has such thoughts as, 'It is mine' or 'It belongs to me' and which he intends to use for purposes other than those of Dhamma." (Pat. 1966 Ed.; p104–105)

(b) A Bhikkhu's Steward (veyyàvaccakara)
This is a rule which explains more about the relationship between the bhikkhu and the steward who is taking care of funds for him.(96) 
'There are, bhikkhus, people of faith and confidence (in the Sangha) who entrust money into the hands of monastery stewards saying, "With this, provide the bhikkhu so-and-so with what is allowable". I permit you, bhikkhus, to accept an allowable item obtained thereby. But this, bhikkhus, I do not say: that in any circumstances may gold, silver or money be accepted (by a bhikkhu, or) be looked about for (by him)'.
"When the donors ask the bhikkhu, 'Has the Venerable One a steward?' or, 'Is there an appropriate place where I may deposit this money', or some similar question, then the bhikkhu may point out a suitable steward, or he may indicate an appropriate place. Should the donor deposit the money with that steward, or in that place, then it is properly deposited.
"A bhikkhu may not command (tell) either the donor or the steward what to do with regard to the gift of gold or money. However, he may give them hints, or suggestions, or any information, as long as these fall short of ordering the donor or steward. Also, a bhikkhu may not accept the ownership of gold or money offered to him indirectly, for example should a donor say to him, "In such and such a place is a certain amount of money, I give it to you." then the bhikkhu is obliged to reject the gift by words or by a gesture of refusal or by mental resolve (e.g. determining, "I do not accept this") otherwise he incurs [an offence of Confession with Forfeiture]." (AB) 
In the original story, Ven. Upananda's steward had received some money from a chief minister so that when the monk required a robe he could be supplied with one. Ven. Upananda eventually asked for a robe on the day when the steward had an important meeting which everyone was obliged to attend or be penalised. Ven. Upananda refused to wait and forced the steward to get the robe immediately so that he came late to the meeting and suffered a penalty fine. Everyone there agreed that, 'these monks are impatient and difficult to serve'. Therefore the Buddha set down this rule:
"If someone sends money (valuables) for the purpose of buying a robe for a bhikkhu and he (whoever brings the money) wants to know who is acting as the bhikkhu's attendant (veyyàvaccakara), and if the bhikkhu wants the robe he should indicate someone connected with the monastery or an upasaka (lay devotee) saying: "This person is the attendant of all the bhikkhus". When he (who brings the money) has instructed the attendant and told the bhikkhu: "If you want a robe, tell the attendant," then later that bhikkhu should go and find the attendant, he may tell him: "I need a robe". If he does not get it, he may ask up to three times in all. If he still does not get the robe he may go and stand where the attendant can see him, up to six times. If he does not get it and he asks more than three times or stands more than six times, and then gets it, it is [an offence of Confession with Forfeiture.]
"If after asking and standing the full amount he does not get the robe he must go and tell whoever brought the money saying: "That which you brought did not become available to me," and he should also tell him to ask for his money back in case it should be lost." (Nis. Pàc. 10; Nvp9–10)
Or in Summary:
"When a fund has been set up with a steward indicated by a bhikkhu: Obtaining an article from the fund as a result of having prompted the steward more than the allowable number of times is [an offence of Confession with Forfeiture.]" (Nis. Pàc. 10; BMCp206)
•	The 'robe-price' remains the donor's money but in the keeping of the bhikkhu's steward. In practice, the 'robe-price' may be used for other allowable requisites. It is important for the donor to check about the practice of the particular bhikkhu/s to whom he or she wants to make an offering. Bhikkhus who follow the Rule strictly will behave differently from those who are more relaxed. The former will be very careful with their speech concerning the acceptance of money and the intending donor has to make allowance for such indirect talk.

(c) The Meõóaka Allowance
When bhikkhus were journeying along a difficult way, the Buddha allowed them to seek provisions and also he made another allowance, saying:
"There are people of conviction and confidence, bhikkhus, who place gold and silver in the hand of stewards, saying 'Give the master whatever is allowable.' I allow you, bhikkhus to accept whatever is allowable coming from that. But in no way at all do I say that money is to be accepted or sought for." (BMCp198)
"People who have good faith in bhikkhus may entrust money (lit., silver and gold) into the hand of a [steward] and order him to purchase allowable things for bhikkhus. Bhikkhus may be glad at the allowable things bought by the steward with that money. This is not regarded as being glad at that money. This is called the [Meõóaka Allowance.] Bhikkhus should not request suitable things from the steward in excess of the money deposited with him." (VMIIp135)
"[The offence] in this training-rule is acittaka [so that even without intention it is still an offence]. It seems to me that it was strictly prohibited in the early times but later there was the Buddha's allowance for leniency: for instance, if the householder passes [money] råpiya to the hands of a kappiyakàraka (or steward) saying, "please provide suitable things for such and such a bhikkhu". In this case the Buddha allows the bhikkhu to be glad at whatever allowable thing has been obtained from such [money] råpiya. But He prohibits a bhikkhu from being gladdened by that very [money] råpiya. But then this is not much different from the phrase, "Upanikkhitaü và sàdiyeyya" —to be glad at the money kept for him. It is only said, 'He should not grasp the power (or right) over the jàta-råpa-rajata but only over whatever is allowable having been got from the jàta-råpa-rajata. This story came into existence from the millionaire Meõóaka since Lord Buddha first allowed him to offer such suitable things, this being called the 'Meõóaka-allowance' (Meõóakakanuyàta)." (Pat. 1969 Ed.; p158)

(iv) Buying and Selling
In the Buddha's time, the 'group-of-six' bhikkhus engaged in buying and selling using money. Lay people seeing this, and thinking all bhikkhus did the same, started to complain saying, 'How can these Buddhist monks buy and sell using money, they are behaving just like lay people who enjoy the pleasures of the senses'. The rule was then set down:
"If a bhikkhu engages in buying and selling with money (meaning whatever is used as money), it is [an offence of Confession with Forfeiture.]" (Nis. Pàc. 19; Nvp11)

Cheques, Credit Cards, etc.
With modern conditions things other than cash also have to be considered. What about bhikkhus and cheques or even postage stamps or 'phone cards'? What is included in the rule and where does one draw the line? Different communities will understand these rules in slightly different ways —although probably all will find ordinary postage stamps acceptable! Some modern opinions: 
"At present the term ['gold and silver'] would include coins and paper currency, but not checks, credit cards, bank drafts, or promissory notes, as these —on their own and without further identification of the persons carrying them— do not function as true currency." (BMCp215)
"Cheques, credit cards and travellers cheques are not the same as money because [they are not] commonly negotiable, something that one can take into almost any shop and, without any further 'ink-work' or paperwork, exchange it for whatever one desires. ...[therefore] there is no offence for receiving or holding these things. However, using cheques, credit cards and travellers cheques or things similar would come under 'buying and selling' and the offenses listed under [Confession with Forfeiture] 19 and 20 would be likely to arise." (AB)

(v) Barter or Trade
The rule about bhikkhus and bartering originated in the Buddha's time like this:
Through fine sewing and dying, Ven. Upananda was skilled at turning rags into an attractive-looking robe. A wandering ascetic wanted the robe and offered to trade his own costly, quality robe for the beautifully turned out rag-robe of Ven. Upananda. Ven. Upananda asked him if he was really sure and then they agreed to the exchange. But later the wandering ascetic changed his mind and went to Ven. Upananda to get his good-quality robe back, but Ven. Upananda would not give it back. The wandering ascetic became angry and said that even lay people returned unsatisfactory bartered goods. Therefore, this ruling was made:
"Obtaining gold or money through trade is [an offence of Confession with Forfeiture.]" (Summary of Nis. Pàc. 20; BMCp225)

(vi) 'Untouchable' Things?
In the Buddha's time a bhikkhu went to bathe in the river and found a purse of money lost by a brahmin. The owner returned and, to escape having to pay the customary reward, pretended that some of the money was suspiciously missing. The rule (Pàc. 84) therefore prohibits a bhikkhu from picking up lost valuables.
However, there is another rule which qualifies this and shows that it is not the object as such that is the problem —as if 'by not touching it one is free of it'— but the care one must take that one's greed and attachment is not drawn in to contaminate the object and that one is not the victim of other people's greed. The exception to the above rule is if the bhikkhu finds valuables in the monastery or in the place where he dwells, for then he is required (and falls into an offence if he does not) to pick them up and keep them safe for the owner.
The Commentary also forbids bhikkhus from touching unsuitable objects, which includes gold, silver, and valuable things.(97) While there is also a Sutta about bhikkhus not accepting paddy-fields and other sorts of land, or draught animals, etc. (VMIIp148; p150)

(4) Lodgings

	The Buddha suggested that the bhikkhu should normally stay at the root of a sheltering tree. (His own Awakening took place at the foot of the Bodhi tree.) However, later, when the Rains Retreat period became established and bhikkhus were more settled after their wanderings through the forest, lodgings or kuñã came to be offered and built. (In fact, during the three months of the Rains Retreat a bhikkhu is now required to stay in a more sheltered place.)
The bhikkhu may also take on —they are voluntary— the special dhutanga (tudong in Thai) practices. These are more usually seen among forest monks and are distinctive of their way of practice: for example, they will delight in living in the forest, in the open, in caves, in the cemetery or burning ground, and when staying in a monastery will be happy to accept whatever lodging is offered.

Luxurious Lodgings
Originally the kuñi or lodging may not have been much more than a hut with a plaster or earthen floor. Rules were formulated as to their size and luxury. For example, the sixth Saïghàdisesa Rule —remember that this is the second most serious category of rules requiring a formal meeting of the community— arose when bhikkhus were having extravagant huts built for themselves. They had no sponsors and were therefore begging materials from lay people, 'saying, again and again, "Give me this, give me that...". The people became burdened by all this begging and when they saw the bhikkhus, any bhikkhus, coming they would run away and hide.
"Building a plastered hut —or having it built— without a sponsor, destined for one's own use, without having obtained the Community's approval, is a [serious offence entailing meetings of the Sangha.] Building a plastered hut —or having it built— without a sponsor, destined for one's own use, exceeding the standard measurements, is also a [serious offence entailing meetings of the Sangha.] (Summary Saïgh. 6; BMCp128)
The Commentary explains that it must be quite a permanent structure to come under this ruling. Depending on how long one understands the ancient measure of the sugata-span(98) to be, the kuñi or hut should not be more than approximately 3 x 1.75 metres. (See BMCp125.) The commentarial tradition would put it three times this size.

Furniture
Bhikkhus are allowed to have a low bed on which to sleep and a stool on which to sit in order to prevent dampness from the earthen floor, but often where the lodgings are wooden floored (and in tropical climates) the bhikkhu will sleep on the floor on an ordinary sleeping mat. In cold climates this may have to be adjusted using the Great Standards. (See page .)
Avoiding 'high and luxurious beds' is also a feature of the Eight Precepts for lay people temporarily living the celibate life.

* * * * * *

IV Right Livelihood for a Bhikkhu

Teaching Dhamma
The bhikkhu's life is wholly preparing him to gain insight into Dhamma and then to have the wisdom to communicate that to others. However, teaching Dhamma is not easy and if it is badly done it can cause more misunderstanding than understanding. The fourth Confession Rule came to be set down when the group-of-six monks taught Dhamma to lay people by rote, which caused the lay followers to feel disrespect for the monks:
"If a bhikkhu teaches Dhamma to an unordained person (one who is not a bhikkhu), repeating it together word by word, it is [an offence of Confession.]" (Pàc. 4; Nvp14)
"To rehearse the Dhamma word by word ...was the method to teach others to memorise when there were no books. This method was formerly used in (Thai) temples and popularly known by the name 'studying books in the evening'. The aim of prohibiting pronouncing (Scripture) together is clearly shown in the original story of this training-rule which was to prevent the pupils from looking down on the teacher." (Pat. 1969 Ed.; p159)
Sixteen of the Sekhiya rules (#57–72) set down how and to whom a bhikkhu should teach Dhamma. These rules are also concerned with the etiquette of showing respect, respect not only for the bhikkhu but more importantly for the Dhamma that he is teaching. (The Great Standards would imply here that modern ways of showing respect and disrespect would be similarly covered by these rules.) If the bhikkhu considers that anyone is showing disrespect to the Dhamma these rules prohibit him from teaching. Here is a summary of some of the Sekhiya Trainings #57–72:
"I will not teach Dhamma to someone who is not sick but who:
—has an umbrella; a wooden stick (club); weapon in their hand.
—is wearing (wooden-soled) sandals/ shoes; is in a vehicle; is on a bed (or couch); is sitting clasping the knees; has a head wrapping (turban); whose head is covered; who is sitting on a seat while I am sitting on the ground; who is sitting on a high seat while I am sitting on a low seat; who is sitting while I am standing; who is walking in front of me while I am walking behind; who is walking on a pathway while I am walking beside the pathway." (Sekhiya 57-72)
"...These Sekhiyas ensure that one teaches Dhamma only to an audience which shows respect. One may not expound from a soap-box in the marketplace ...to the indifference of passers by. However it is common these days in the West for a seated audience, wearing their shoes and maybe even a hat, to respectfully listen to a speaker standing at a lectern ...and as the audience is considered to be behaving respectfully according to the prevailing norms there seems no reason why a monk may not teach Dhamma in such a situation." (AB)

Robbery by False Pretences
If a bhikkhu lies about his spiritual attainments, it may be ground for the offence of 'Defeat'. The originating circumstances for this Rule occurred during a famine when food was scarce and many bhikkhus found alms food difficult to obtain. A group of these monks devised a scheme where they told lay people of each other's attainments of 'superior human states', often deliberately lying to impress them. The faithful lay people gave alms to such 'special' bhikkhus thinking that it would bring greater merit and so they and their families went without to feed those monks. Later, when the Buddha knew of this he rebuked them and described them as the worst of the 'Five Great Thieves' —immoral monks who obtain their alms food as a robber does. He set down:
"A bhikkhu who boasts of ['superior human states',] which he has not in fact attained, commits [an offence of Defeat.]" (Pàr. 4; Nvp5)
"Deliberately lying to another person that one has attained a superior human state is [an offence of Defeat.]" (Summary Pàr. 4; BMCp86)
The Commentary classes 'superior human states' (uttarimanussadhamma) as either: meditative absorption (jhàna), and certain psychic powers (abhi¤¤à)(99) or the path and fruit leading up to Nibbàna.
A deliberate lie is normally an offence of Confession (Pàc. 1) but this deliberate false avowal of meditative attainment(100) is classed as the most serious 'Defeater' Offence. This shows how much more damaging it was considered to be. When a 'guru-like' bhikkhu falsely puts himself forward as enlightened, his lies can be destructive not only to himself and his followers but to the whole of Buddhism.
A bhikkhu commits no offence when he has no intention to make superior claims even if it is wrongly understood or misconstrued that way.
If a bhikkhu is insane, psychotically believing his own delusions of grandeur and making extravagant claims of his own enlightenment, he receives exemption from any offence.(101)

Proper Behaviour outside the Monastery
When a bhikkhu goes into a public place, he stands out because of the robes he wears. Whatever he does is noticed and reflects back on his community and the Sangha in general. Therefore, there are a number of training rules to remind the bhikkhu about correct deportment.
The first twenty-six Sekhiya Training rules cover proper behaviour in public places. Here is a selection: 
"When in inhabited areas, I will ...wear the under and upper robe properly; be properly covered; go well restrained as to my movements; keep my eyes looking down; sit with little sound."
"When in inhabited areas, I will not ...hitch up my robes; go or sit laughing loudly; go or sit fidgeting; swing my arms; shake my head; put my arms akimbo; cover my head with a cloth; walk on tiptoe; sit clasping the knees."
There is always an allowance for "one who is ill" so that a bhikkhu may, for example, cover his head when the weather is unbearable cold or the sun dangerously hot. The same applies to footwear, which normally should not be worn in inhabited areas.(102)

Socializing and Wrong Resort
'Going out on the town' is not appropriate for bhikkhus and is covered in several rules. The eighty-fifth Confession Rule, describes how the 'group-of-six' bhikkhus went to the village in the afternoon and sat around gossiping, so that lay people compared them to householders.
"Entering a village, town, or city during the period after noon until the following dawn, without having taken leave of an available bhikkhu —unless there is an emergency— is [an offence of Confession.] (Summary Pàc. 85; BMCp470)
Persons or places of 'wrong resort' for a bhikkhu are divided into six sorts: prostitutes, widows, spinsters, bhikkhunãs, sex-aberrants (paõóaka), and taverns. (VMIIp178–180)
A bhikkhu is also prohibited from going to see and hear dancing, singing, and music. This is similar to the Eight and Ten Precepts. (See VMIIp72)

Wrong Ways of Behaviour
Playful and wrong conduct (anàcàra) for a bhikkhu is, for example, playing like a child with toys or games, etc.; or making garlands of flowers, etc.
Bhikkhus are also prohibited from studying or speaking on 'low animal-like knowledge' (tiracchàna-vijjà).
"The explanation of ['low animal-like knowledge'] seems to cover all general subjects which are not related to the Dhamma of bhikkhus. [These are:] knowledge of enchantments making men and women love each other; knowledge for making this or that person fall into disaster; knowledge for using spirits or showing various kinds of magic; knowledge of prediction, such as knowing beforehand lottery results; knowledge leading to self-delusion, such as transmuting mercury to gain the supernatural, as in the transmuting of silver and copper into gold.
"These knowledges are tiracchàna-vijjà because they are knowledge of doubtful things which are deceptive or deluding, not being true knowledge. A teacher of this is a deceiver and a pupil is one who practises to deceive, or he is just a foolish, deluded person." (VMIIp120–121)

Alcohol
The fifth of the Five Precepts for all Buddhists is about drinking alcohol, which destroys mindfulness and is therefore a frequent cause of unskilful actions and speech. The equivalent rule for bhikkhus is the fifty-first Confession:
"The drinking of alcohol or fermented liquors is [an offence of Confession.]" (Pàc. 51; BMCp402)
The origin-story concerns Ven. Sàgata who conquered a fierce nàga(103) by his meditation-developed psychic powers. The townspeople heard about this feat and wanted to make some sort of offering to him upon which the 'group-of-six' bhikkhus impudently suggested that they all should give him alcohol. When he arrived on his almsround every household offered alcohol and he finally collapsed, drunk, at the town gate and had to be carried back to the monastery. He was laid down in a stupor with his head towards the Buddha but in his drunkenness he turned around so that his feet pointed at the Buddha.(104) The Buddha pointed out his changed behaviour, remarking that he certainly could not oppose a nàga in such a state.
The Four Great Standards may be further used to argue that using narcotics —which also destroy mindfulness and lead to heedlessness— would also be an offence of Confession. Then there is the general principle of respecting the 'law of the land' (when it accords with Dhamma) so such illegal drugs would be disallowed anyway.(105)

Wrong Livelihood
Wrong livelihood for a bhikkhu is divided into two:
One category concerns a bhikkhu searching for a living in a way that is also considered wrong by worldly norms. For example, robbing or deceiving others by claiming to be enlightened and receiving gifts and support because of people's belief. (See Pàr. 4, page .)
The second category involves making a living that is wrong according to the Vinaya Disciplinary Rule. For example: begging or asking from an unsuitable person or at an unsuitable time(106); thinking to gain something by giving a little but hoping for much in return; investing to gain interest; making a living by trade, for instance, giving medical treatment for reward; to seek reward from "the ceremony for [chanting] paritta (verses of protection), that is, making holy water and the sacred thread, the blowing of a charmed formula onto a person by a bhikkhu is also prohibited. ...It is allowed only to recite the paritta [protection verses], but this also occurs later and is not found in the Pàli. ...[This is wrong livelihood and a] bhikkhu who seeks his living in this way is called alajjã, 'one who has no shame'." (VMIIp129)

Behaviour with Families

(i) 'Corrupting Families'(107)
The serious Saïghàdisesa Rule 13 involves the proper relationship that bhikkhus should develop with lay followers.
It originated when two of the oft-transgressing 'group-of-six' monks neglected their Dhamma practice and behaved improperly in order to become popular with lay people. The lay people came to like the sociable, playful monks so much that when more composed, right-practising monks came by they were considered snobbish and dull.
"If a bhikkhu corrupts families —in other words he flatters and fawns on lay people— and other bhikkhus drive him away from the monastery, and in return he criticises them and if another bhikkhu then tells him that he must not do this, but he will not listen, a Sangha should recite the [formal admonishment] to induce him to abandon this mode of behaviour. If he does not abandon it, it [entails initial and subsequent meetings of the Community ]" (Saïgh. 13; Nvp7)
A bhikkhu guilty of habitually indulging in these practices —sometimes called 'Vile and Low Conduct' (pàpasamàcàra)— should be 'banished' from his particular Community until he mends his ways.
Of course, a bhikkhu may concern himself in lay people's affairs if it concerns religious duties. Also
"the business of one's mother and father, or of persons who prepare to be ordained, called paõóupalàsa (lit., yellow leaves, ready to fall off the tree), or of one's own veyyàvaccakara (steward, supporter, pupil) can be done by him even though these are apart from religious duties." (VMIIp121–122)
"...A bhikkhu who is complete in good conduct does not lower himself to become the intimate of a family in the same way as a lay man may do. He is not aggressive or destructive but shows a heart of loving-kindness and conducts himself in a moderate way, thus causing good faith and reverence to arise in them towards himself. He is then called kulapasàdako (one in whom families have faith). He is the splendour of the [Teaching]...
"Bhikkhus who are not strict lower themselves to become vile men but bhikkhus who are over-strict are not interested in showing [compassion] in helping householders in various ways." (VMIIp123–124)
A bhikkhu's wrong mode of livelihood includes "running messages and errands for kings, ministers of state, householders, etc. A modern example would be participating in political campaigns." (BMCp152)

(ii) Intruding on Families
The meaning of one of the rules is uncertain —as can be seen by the different translations below— but it may explain why visiting bhikkhus may be reluctant to intrude into a family's space.
The Forty-third Confession Rule arose from Ven. Upananda's visit to a man and his wife who were sitting in their bedroom together. The husband told his wife to give Ven. Upananda a meal and when that was finished requested him to leave. The wife noticed that her husband was becoming sexually excited and not wishing to participate asked Ven. Upananda to stay. He stayed. This happened three times after which the husband stormed out of the house indignant at Ven. Upananda's behaviour.
The Rule has been understood in rather different ways:
 "Should any bhikkhu intrude upon and sit down in (the bedroom of) a family with both persons, (the man and the wife, present, one of whom does not agree to his remaining), it entails Confession." (Pàc. 43; Ven. ¥ànamoli's translation in the Pàtimokkha, 1969 Ed.; p163)
 "To sit down intruding on a man and a woman in their private quarters —when one or both are sexually aroused, and when another bhikkhu is not present— is [an offence of Confession.]" (Summary Pàc. 43; BMCp385)
 "If a bhikkhu sits down, intruding on a family while they are taking food, it is [an offence of Confession.]" (Pàc. 43; NVp19)
 "A monk who intrudes into and sits down in a house where husband and wife are by themselves enjoying each other's company, commits [an offence of Confession.]" (Pàc.43; BBCp128)

V Miscellaneous

Disputes(108)
When the Buddha went to reside at Ghositàràma in the city of Kosambi, he found a dispute had arisen between the bhikkhus there. One group of monks under a 'Vinaya-expert' had accused the 'Dhamma-expounder' leader (of another group) of a minor wrongdoing offence. The 'Dhamma-expounder' bhikkhu would not admit to this and so dissension arose between the two groups. Even when the Buddha pointed out to both groups the dangers in this and how to put matters to right, they still could not agree. So the Buddha left them and went to reside by himself in the Rakkhitavan Forest.
The lay people of Kosambi blamed the quarrelling bhikkhus for causing the Buddha to go away and in consequence they agreed together not to pay respect to those bhikkhus. When the bhikkhus came to their houses, they would not give alms food, desiring them to go away, disrobe, or else return to the way of practice pleasing to the Lord Buddha. After this treatment, both groups of bhikkhus came to their senses and agreed to see the Lord Buddha where the dispute was properly resolved. (See VMIIIp129) 
A set of formal procedures are set down to resolve disputes within the Community. They are summarised in the last seven Adhikaraõasamatha 'rules' of the 227 Rules of the Pàñimokkha. (See Appendices B and C.)

Nikàya or Schools of Buddhism
For an outsider, one of the most notable features of Buddhism is the number and diversity of Buddhist schools. When disputes (such as that described above) are left unresolved there is a tendency for the formation of nikàya or 'schools', which are passed on through 'ordination lineage' to future generations of bhikkhus. Historically, as Buddhism spread over Asia, the practice of local Communities gradually adapted to new circumstances. The originally slight divergences grew so that today not only do we have the major Schools of the 'South' (Theravàda) and the 'North' (Mahayàna, Tibetan), and 'East' (Mahayàna Ch'an, Son, Zen, etc.) but also myriad minor local differences.
"Coming down to later times, when the different groups became established in places foreign to the original lands, those two nikàya became very far apart both in the texts and in the language for chanting, all the way to garments and customs —just compare for instance, Vietnamese monks with Thai monks." (VMIIIp230)
"[In the Theravàda School,] this reached the point where the intonations used in speaking Pàli [language] differed: such as ours in Thailand, those in Sri Lanka, Burma and the Mons, for example. Each group holds that their way is better than that of the other groups. Even though they have contact with each other, they are not united as a single group, and minor nikàya arise out of them, determined according to nationality ...
"In these national nikàya, some nikàya would thrive at certain times, until other nikàya would take them as a model to be followed ... [by] some bhikkhus requesting entry to their group by taking new ordination or re-ordination. ... A nikàya which takes the methods of another nikàya will make further differences in its methods until they are a separate nikàya. These call themselves by names different from the nationality, such as our [Thai] Mahà-nikàya and Dhammayuttika-nikàya; the Burmese Culagaõñhã and Mahàgaõñhã. [One no longer finds these names, now there are the Sudhamma Nikàya (the largest group), the Shwegyin Nikàya and the small Dvàra Nikàya]; and the Upàlivaüsa, Marammàvaüsa and Ràma¤¤avaüsa of Sri Lanka. (Now more frequently known as Siam Nikàya, Amarapura Nikàya, and Ràma¤¤a Nikàya.)" (VMIIIp230–231)
Attempts by central authorities to forceable rejoin these local groups have seldom been successful, especially as Buddhism has never favoured using violence in religious suppression. What often happens is that instead of merging two nikàyas into one, it forces another sect to form. Then there are three —the two original plus a new combined sect.

Etiquette

Showing respect
The Buddha allowed several ways of showing respect to others "for the beauty and good of the community (of both monks and lay people)." These include: vandanà —bowing or 'showing reverence with the five points', i.e. the forehead, two forearms, and the two knees(109); utthàna —standing up to welcome(110); a¤jalã —joining the palms together in respect; and sàmãcikamma, which are other ways of showing respect that are beautiful and good. (See VMIIp78)

Vandanà: 'showing reverence with the five points'

Another ancient way of showing respect is circumambulation or walking around the object of veneration three times in a clockwise direction —so that one's right shoulder is towards, for example, the cetiya or pagoda.(111) 
"It is a tradition of bhikkhus that whoever enters the area around a cetiya, which is a place for the recollection of the Master, should behave in a respectful manner, neither opening his umbrella nor putting on sandals nor wearing the [robe] covering both shoulders. They should not speak loudly there or sit with their legs spread apart with their feet pointing (at the cetiya), thus not showing respect for that place. They must not stool or urinate, spit upon the terraces of the cetiya (or) before an image of the Exalted Buddha, their good behaviour thus showing respect for the Master." (VMIIp82)(112) 
Rule 63: "Not to wear leather shoes into a Buddha-Stupa is a rule I will observe; [ #77.] Not to carry a Buddha-image into a privy is a rule I will observe; [#84.] Not to sit with my feet stuck out in front of a Buddha-Stupa is a rule I will observe." (Shaikshas from the Pratimoksha Precepts)
In many parts of Asia it is considered extremely rude to point one's feet at someone or some religious object. An example, is found in the Confession Rule 51 (page  above) where a highly gifted bhikkhu is made drunk and in his stupor turns and points his feet at the Buddha.(113)
'Younger'(114) bhikkhus use these ways to show respect to those who have been bhikkhus for longer than them, and similarly, lay people may show respect to bhikkhus in the same way. A 'younger' bhikkhu may call another bhikkhu, "Bhante", ("Venerable Sir" or "Reverend Sir"), and, similarly, a lay person may use this as a general form of address to bhikkhus. Each country will have its own way of addressing older, more senior bhikkhus appropriate to their age and experience. (Also see page .)
There are many other titles and ranks for senior bhikkhus. The king or government often confers these in recognition of service or administrative ability. (When administration of all the bhikkhus of the country is subsumed under central government departments, it may then be divided up into regions and districts under the supervision of the local senior 'respectable' monks.) However, underlying all of that is the Vinaya Rule which still guides the traditional ways of the bhikkhu life, without class or influence, and remains the foundation for continued Dhamma practice.

* * * * * *

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APPENDICES
==========================

Appendix A: Lay Precepts (Sãla)
Anyone, of any religion or none, can appreciate these basic, practical guidelines about actions and speech suggested by the Buddha. When we are mindful enough to realise that we have a choice about our actions and speech, they are there to help answer questions of, "what should I do, what should I say?" They are practical and down to earth without requiring one to promise first to believe in anything supernatural. Like the lane markings on the highway, they help speed one on one's journey without colliding with any other travellers or going completely off the road.
The Precepts mark the straightforward way of living that harms or hurts no one, offering one the choice to transform one's life through growing mindfulness into perfect virtue, wisdom and compassion.
 There are the basic Five Precepts which can be received by simply saying:
"I undertake the training precept ... 
	1)  to abstain from taking life.
	2)  to abstain from taking what is not given.
	3)  to abstain from sexual misconduct.
	4)  to abstain from false speech.
	5)  to abstain from intoxicants causing heedlessness."

  and these Five are then refined into the Eight Precepts: 
"I undertake the training precept ...
	1)  to abstain from taking life.
	2)  to abstain from taking what is not given.
	3)  to abstain from unchastity.
	4)  to abstain from false speech.
	5)  to abstain from intoxicants causing heedlessness.
	6)  to abstain from untimely eating.
	7)  to abstain from dancing, singing, music and unseemly shows, from wearing garlands, smartening with scents, and embellishment with unguents.
	8)  to abstain from the use of high and large luxurious couches."(115)

 The novice or sàmaõera has Ten Precepts. The same Eight as above, however the seventh precept is split into two, and an extra tenth precept is added. The tenth precept being the abstaining from involvement with money.

Appendix B: A Summary of the Major Rule Groups

A) The Four Pàràjika —The Defeaters
Any bhikkhu who falls into any of the four 'Defeater' offenses severs himself irrevocably from the community and is no longer considered a bhikkhu. The Pàli portrays it with these similes: 'as a man with his head cut off', 'as a withered leaf fallen from its stem'.
[The 'defeated monk'] "does not need to go through a formal ceremony of disrobing because the act of violating the rule is an act of disrobing in and of itself. Even if he continues to pretend to be a bhikkhu, he does not really count as one; as soon as the facts are known, he must be expelled from the Sangha. He can never again properly ordain as a bhikkhu in this life. If he tries to ordain in a Community that does not know of his offence, his ordination does not count, and he must be expelled as soon as the truth is found out.
"The Commentary, however, states that such a offender may 'go forth' as a novice [if the Community accepts him.]" (BMC p87)
"A bhikkhu who has committed any of the Four Pàràjika offenses can no longer have  [communion] (saüvàsa) with the sangha. He is one who is condemned for his entire lifetime. There is no way to remedy it. He must get out of the group. This is the only way for him. If that person does not give up his status on his own but declares himself a bhikkhu, once the sangha knows this, it should expel him from the group." (VMIIIp242–243)

B) The Thirteen Saïghàdisesa —which Require Formal Meetings of the Bhikkhu Community
This is a very serious class of offence. However, any offending bhikkhu can still be rehabilitated through confession and probation under the supervision of formal meetings of the Sangha.

C) The Two Aniyata —Indefinite or Undetermined
The Community has to decide which rule, if any, had been infringed. 

D) The 30 Nissaggiya Pàcittiya —Confession with Forfeiture
These rules are often concerned with bhikkhus being greedy and excessive in their demand for offerings, or with bhikkhus obtaining requisites through improper means. This oppresses lay donors and, classically, led them to comment: "How can these recluses... not knowing moderation ask for...?". The rules of this category also guide bhikkhus on how they should take care of requisites and restrain them from obtaining items that by their very nature are inappropriate.
This offence can be cleared by forfeiture of the improper item to another bhikkhu(s) and formal confession of the offence.

•	The other classes of offenses can usually be resolved by a simple 'confession' to another bhikkhu(s). They are:

E) The 92 Pàcittiya —Expiation through Confession
All these offenses can be cleared through confession to another bhikkhu.

F) The Four Patidesaniya —to be Acknowledged

G) The 75 Sekhiyavatta —Trainings
There are two aspects to these 'rules of training' which are mainly about etiquette and good manners. First, they are a 'gauge' for the bhikkhu's mindfulness so that he becomes aware of his behaviour. Second, there is the external perspective, of an observer watching the bhikkhu's activity and noticing the care and refinement with which he moves, eats, etc.

H) The Seven Adhikaraõasamatha —Settlement of Issues
These are more general procedures (rather than offenses) for dealing with disputes, accusations, offenses and duties. (See BMCp511)

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Appendix C: Introduction to the Patimokkha Rules(116)
by Thanissaro Bhikkhu
In recent years more and more Westerners have come into contact with Theravada Buddhist monks, and many have become curious about the rules governing the monks' life. This introduction is meant to help satisfy that curiosity by giving a brief explanation of the rationale behind the rules and their enforcement, and by providing summaries of the rules, classed according to topic. Anyone interested in more information on the rules and their interpretation may look into the book, The Buddhist Monastic Code (TBMC), which is also available on DharmaNet(117) (VINAYA.ZIP). 

Rules
One of the first questions that many people ask is why the monks have rules in the first place. Since the Dhamma aims at freedom and depends on self-reliance, wouldn't it be better to let the monks develop their own innate sense of right and wrong unfettered by legalisms? 
The answer to this question lies in the fact that the monks form a Community, reliant on the support of lay Buddhists, and anyone who has lived for any time in a communal situation knows that communities need rules in order to function peacefully. The Buddha, in laying down each rule, gave ten reasons for doing so: for the excellence of the Community, the peace of the Community, the curbing of the shameless, the comfort of well-behaved bhikkhus, the restraint of pollutants related to the present life, the prevention of pollutants related to the next life, the arousing of faith in the faithless, the increase of the faithful, the establishment of the true Dhamma and the fostering of discipline. 
These reasons fall into three main types. The first two are external: to ensure peace and well-being within the Community itself, and to foster and protect faith among the laity, on whom the monks depend for their support. The third type of reason is internal: to help restrain and prevent mental pollutants within the individual monks. This last point quickly becomes apparent to anyone who seriously tries to keep to the rules, for they encourage mindfulness and circumspection in one's actions, qualities that carry over into the training of the mind. 
Rules, however, are not the only way to express ethical norms, and the Buddha also made use of principles and models in teaching the virtues he wanted his following to develop. The rules thus function in a wider context than simple legality, and work together with the principles and models formulated by the Buddha to provide a complete training in behaviour, with each side making up for the weaknesses of the other. 
Principles and models serve as personal, subjective standards, and tend to be loosely defined. Their interpretation and application are left to the judgment of the individual. Thus they are difficult to enforce when an individual has blatantly overstepped the bounds of proper behaviour.
Rules serve as more objective standards, and thus are more enforceable. To work, they must be precisely defined in a way acceptable to the Community at large. This precision, though, accounts for their weakness in general as universal guides to behaviour. To begin with, a clear, practical line must be drawn between black and white, i.e., between what is and is not an infraction of the rule. In some cases, it is difficult to find a practical break off point that corresponds exactly to one's intuitive sense of what is right and wrong, so it is sometimes necessary to include the areas of gray either with the black or the white. 
Secondly, the more precisely a rule is defined to suit a particular time and place, the less well it may fit other times and places. This is where principles and models come in: They indicate the spirit of the rules and aid in applying them to differing contexts. 
 Thus as you look at the rules and contemplate them, you should keep in mind that they function in a larger context: the teachings and practice of the Dhamma as a whole. The Buddha's own name for the religion he founded was Dhamma-Vinaya, so remember that neither half was meant to function without the other. 

Origin of the Rules 
The Buddha did not set out a code of rules all at once. Instead, he formulated rules one by one, in response to particular incidents. The Canon reports these incidents in each case, and often a knowledge of these "origin stories" can help in understanding the reasons behind the rules. For instance, the origin story to the rule forbidding lustful conduct between monks and women shows that the Buddha did not view women as somehow inferior or unclean. Rather, the rule comes from an incident where a monk was fondling the wife of a Brahmin who had come to visit his hut, and the Buddha wanted women to feel safe in the knowledge that when visiting monasteries they would not be in danger of being molested. 
Some of the stories are classics of Buddhist literature, and show a dry, understated sense of humour together with a perceptive insight into human foibles. The element of humour here is very important, for without it there can be no intelligent set of rules to govern human behaviour. 
As time passed, and the number of rules grew, some of the Buddha's followers, headed by Ven. Upali, gathered the major rules into a set code — the Patimokkha — that eventually contained 227 rules. The minor rules, which came to number several hundred, they gathered into chapters loosely organized according to topic, called Khandhakas. 
The Patimokkha as we now have is embedded in a text called the Sutta Vibhanga. This presents each rule, preceded by its origin story, and followed by what permutations, if any, it went through before reaching its final form. The rule is then analysed into its component elements, to show how the factors of effort, object, perception, intention and result do or do not mitigate the penalty assigned by the rule. The discussion then concludes with a list of extenuating circumstances for which there is no offense in breaking the rule. 

Penalties
The system of penalties the Buddha worked out for the rules is based on two principles. The first is that the training aims primarily at the development of the mind. Thus the factors of intention and perception often determine whether or not a particular action is an infringement of a rule. For instance, killing an animal accidentally is, in terms of the mind of the agent, very different from killing it purposefully, and does not count as an infringement of the rule against killing.
There are a few rules where the factors of intention and perception make no difference at all — such as in the rule forbidding a monk to drink alcohol — but they almost always deal with situations where one would be expected to be mindful and perceptive enough to know what's going on, and so these rules too help in the training of the mind. 
In any event, the system of analysing each offense into the factors of effort, object, perception, intention and result shows how adherence to the rules leads directly to the development of concentration and discernment. If a monk is careful to view his actions in terms of these factors, he is developing mindfulness, an analytical approach to events in the present, and persistence. These are the first three factors of Awakening, and form the basis for the remaining four: rapture, serenity, concentration and equanimity. 
The second principle used in determining penalties is based on the Buddha's observation to Ananda, one of his chief disciples, that friendship and companionship with the good is the whole of the religious life. Anyone who approaches the Dhamma seriously should be wise enough to realize that without the opportunity of associating and learning from people who are experienced on the path, it is well nigh impossible to make any progress on one's own. The monks are thus expected to value their good standing vis a vis the well-behaved members of their group, and so the system of punishments worked out by the Buddha revolves entirely around affecting the offender's status within the Community. 
The Patimokkha classifies its rules into seven levels: 
parajika	defeat; 
sanghadisesa	entailing Communal meetings; 
nissaggiya pacittiya	entailing forfeiture and confession; 
pacittiya	entailing confession; 
patidesaniya	entailing acknowledgement; 
sekhiya	trainings; and 
adhikarana samatha	the settlement of issues.
If a monk breaks one of the four most serious rules — the parajikas (Pr) — he is expelled from the Community for life. If he breaks one of the next most serious classes of the rules — the sanghadisesas (Sg) — he is put on probation for six days, during which time he is stripped of his seniority, is not trusted to go anywhere unaccompanied by four other monks of regular standing, and daily has to confess his offense to every monk who lives in or happens to visit the monastery. At the end of his probation, twenty monks have to be convened to reinstate him to his original status.
The next three levels of rules — nissaggiya pacittiya (NP), pacittiya (Pc), and patidesaniya (Pd) — entail simple confession to a fellow monk, although the NP rules involved an article that has to be forfeited — in most cases temporarily, although in a few cases the object has to be forfeited for good, in which case the offender has to confess his offense to the entire Community. 
If a monk commits an offense and refuses to undergo the penalty, the Community may decide how seriously they take the matter. Since there is no monks' police beyond the individual's conscience, it may often happen that no one else knows of the offense to begin with, and nothing is done. If however it becomes common knowledge, and the Community regards it as a serious matter, they should talk privately with the monk to help him see the error of his ways. If he is recalcitrant, they may strip him temporarily of his status, either by censuring him, stripping him of his seniority, driving him from the Community, or suspending him from the Order of monks as a whole. If the offender sees the error of his ways and reforms his behaviour accordingly, the Community may return him to his former status. 
Now of course there may be some hardened souls among the monks who are unfazed by punishments of this sort, but we should note that the Buddha saw no use for physical coercion in enforcing his rules. If a monk had to be physically forced into abiding by the training, his heart wouldn't be in it, and there is no way that he could benefit from it. Such monks the Buddha considered beyond the pale, although he allowed them to stay on in the Community in hopes that eventually their conscience would get the better of them. In the meantime, the law of karma would guarantee that in the long run, they would not be getting away with anything at all. 
The final two levels of rules in the Patimokkha do not give a particular penalty. The sekhiya (Sk) rules — dealing primarily with etiquette — simply state that one should work at following them. The Sutta Vibhanga explains that if one oversteps them out of disrespect, one should confess the fact. The adhikarana samatha (As) rules are not so much rules as they are principles to follow in dealing with issues that arise in the Community. If monks try to settle an issue without following these principles, their decision is invalid, and they must confess their wrongdoing to other monks who took no part in the decision. 

Rule summaries
With this background, we may now look at the content of the rules. What follows is a list summarizing the basic meanings of the rules, organized into five major categories: dealing with Right Speech, Right Action, Right Livelihood, Communal harmony and the etiquette of a contemplative. The first three categories — the factors of the Noble Eightfold Path that make up the training in heightened virtue — are especially useful for showing how the rules relate to the Buddhist path as a whole. 
These five categories are not sharply distinct types. Instead, they are more like the colours in the band of light thrown off by a prism — discernably different, but shading into one another with no sharp dividing lines. Right Speech, for instance, often shades into Communal harmony, just as Right Livelihood shades into personal etiquette. Thus the placement of a particular rule in one category rather than another has been a somewhat arbitrary process. There are a few cases — such as Pacittiyas 46 & 84 — where the reason for placing the rule in a particular category will become clear only after reading the detailed discussions in TBMC. 
Each rule is followed by a code giving the rule's number in its section of the Patimokkha. 
If you count the number of rules in the list, you will see that they do not quite equal 227. This is because there are a couple of cases where I have condensed two or three Sekhiya rules into one summary.

Right Speech
M.117 defines wrong speech as lying, divisive speech, abusive speech and idle chatter.
 Lying
Making an unfounded charge to a bhikkhu that he has committed a parajika offense, in hopes of having him disrobed, is a sanghadisesa offense. (Sg 8) 
Distorting the evidence while accusing a bhikkhu of having committed a parajika offense, in hopes of having him disrobed, is a sanghadisesa offense. (Sg 9) 
The intentional effort to misrepresent the truth to another individual is a pacittiya offense. (Pc 1) 
Making an unfounded charge to a bhikkhu — or getting someone else to make the charge to him — that he is guilty of a sanghadisesa offense is a pacittiya offense. (Pc 76) 
 Divisive speech
Tale-bearing among bhikkhus, in hopes of winning favour or causing a rift, is a pacittiya offense. (Pc 3) 
 Abusive speech
An insult made with malicious intent to another bhikkhu is a pacittiya offense. (Pc 2) 
 Idle chatter
Visiting lay families — without having informed an available bhikkhu — before or after a meal to which one has been invited is a pacittiya offense except during the robe season or any time one is making a robe. (Pc 46) 
Entering a village, town or city during the period after noon until the following dawn, without having taken leave of an available bhikkhu — unless there is an emergency — is a pacittiya offense. (Pc 85)

Right Action
M.117 defines wrong action as killing living beings, taking what is not given, and engaging in sexual misconduct. 
 Killing
Intentionally causing the death of a human being, even if it is still a fetus, is a parajika offense. (Pr 3) 
Pouring water that one knows to contain living beings — or having it poured — on grass or clay is a pacittiya offense. Pouring anything that would kill the beings into such water — or having it poured — is a pacittiya offense. (Pc 20) 
Deliberately killing an animal — or having it killed — is a pacittiya offense. (Pc 61) 
Using water, knowing that it contains living beings that will die from one's using it, is a pacittiya offense. (Pc 62)  
 Taking what is not given
The theft of anything worth 1/24 ounce troy of gold or more is a parajika offense. (Pr 2)
Having given another bhikkhu a robe on a condition and then — angry and displeased — snatching it back or having it snatched back is a nissaggiya pacittiya offense. (NP 25) 
Making use of cloth or a bowl stored under shared ownership — unless the shared ownership has been rescinded or one is taking the item on trust — is a pacittiya offense. (Pc 59)

Sexual Misconduct
Voluntary sexual intercourse — genital, anal or oral — with a human being, non-human being or common animal is a parajika offense. (Pr 1) 
Intentionally causing oneself to emit semen, or getting someone else to cause one to emit semen — except during a dream — is a sanghadisesa offense. (Sg 1) 
Lustful bodily contact with a woman whom one perceives to be a woman is a sanghadisesa offense. (Sg 2) 
Making a lustful remark to a woman about her genitals, her anus or about her performing sexual intercourse is a sanghadisesa offense. (Sg 3) 
Telling a woman that she would benefit from having sexual intercourse with oneself is a sanghadisesa offense. (Sg 4) 
Getting an unrelated bhikkhuni to wash, dye or beat a robe that one has worn at least once is a nissaggiya pacittiya offense. (NP 4) 
Getting an unrelated bhikkhuni to wash, dye or card wool that has not been made into cloth or yarn is a nissaggiya pacittiya offense. (NP 17) 
Lying down at the same time in the same lodging with a woman is a pacittiya offense. (Pc 6) 
Teaching more than six sentences of Dhamma to a woman except in response to a question, is a pacittiya offense unless a knowledgeable man is present. (Pc 7) 
Exhorting a bhikkhuni about the eight vows of respect — except when one has been authorized to do so by the Community — is a pacittiya offense. (Pc 21) 
Exhorting a bhikkhuni on any topic at all after sunset — except when they request it — is a pacittiya offense. (Pc 22) 
Going to the bhikkhunis' quarters and exhorting a bhikkhuni about the eight vows of respect — except when she is ill or has requested the instruction — is a pacittiya offense. (Pc 23) 
Giving robe cloth to an unrelated bhikkhuni without receiving anything in exchange is a pacittiya offense. (Pc 25) 
Sewing a robe — or having one sewn — for an unrelated bhikkhuni is a pacittiya offense. (Pc 26) 
Travelling by arrangement with a bhikkhuni from one village to another — except when the road is risky or there are other dangers — is a pacittiya offense. (Pc 27) 
Travelling by arrangement with a bhikkhuni upriver or down river in the same boat — except when crossing a river — is a pacittiya offense. (Pc 28) 
Sitting or lying down alone with a bhikkhuni in a place out of sight and out of hearing is a pacittiya offense. (Pc 30) 
Sitting or lying down with a woman or women in a private, secluded place with no other man present is a pacittiya offense. (Pc 44) 
Sitting or lying down alone with a woman in an unsecluded but private place is a pacittiya offense. (Pc 45) 
Travelling by arrangement with a woman from one village to another is a pacittiya offense. (Pc 67) 

Right Livelihood
M.117 defines wrong livelihood as scheming, persuading, hinting, belittling and pursuing gain with gain. 
 General
Deliberately lying to another person that one has attained a superior human state is a parajika offense. (Pr 4) 
Acting as a go-between to arrange a marriage, an affair or a date between a man and a woman not married to each other is a sanghadisesa offense. (Sg 5) 
Engaging in trade with anyone except one's co-religionists is a nissaggiya pacittiya offense. (NP 20) 
Persuading a donor to give to oneself a gift that he or she had planned to give to the Community — when one knows that it was intended for the Community — is a nissaggiya pacittiya offense. (NP 30) 
Telling an unordained person of one's actual superior human attainments is a pacittiya offense. (Pc 8) 
Persuading a donor to give to another individual a gift that he or she had planned to give to a Community — when one knows that it was intended for the Community — is a pacittiya offense (Pc 82) 

Robes
Keeping a piece of robe-cloth for more than ten days without determining it for use or placing it under dual ownership — except when the end-of-vassa or kathina privileges are in effect — is a nissaggiya pacittiya offense. (NP 1) Being in a separate zone from any of one's three robes at dawn — except when the end-of-vassa or kathina privileges are in effect, or one has received formal authorization from the Community — is a nissaggiya pacittiya offense. (NP 2) 
Keeping out-of-season cloth for more than 30 days when it is not enough to make a requisite and one has expectation for more — except when the end-of-vassa and kathina privileges are in effect — is a nissaggiya pacittiya offense. (NP 3) 
Accepting robe cloth from an unrelated bhikkhuni without giving her anything in exchange is a nissaggiya pacittiya offense. NP 5) 
Asking for and receiving robe cloth from an unrelated lay person, except when one's robes have been stolen or destroyed, is a nissaggiya pacittiya offense. (NP 6) 
Asking for and receiving excess cloth from unrelated lay people when one's robes have been stolen or destroyed is a nissaggiya pacittiya offense. (NP 7) 
When a lay person who is not a relative is planning to get a robe for one, but has yet to ask one what kind of robe one wants: 
Receiving the robe after making a request that would raise its cost is a nissaggiya pacittiya offense. (NP 8) 
When two or more lay people who are not one's relatives are planning to get separate robes for one, but have yet to ask one what kind of robe one wants: Receiving a robe from them after asking them to pool their funds to get one robe — out of a desire for something fine — is a nissaggiya pacittiya offense. (NP 9) 
Making a felt blanket/rug with silk mixed in it for one's own use — or having it made — is a nissaggiya pacittiya offense. (NP 11) 
Making a felt blanket/rug entirely of black wool for one's own use — or having it made — is a nissaggiya pacittiya offense. (NP 12) 
Making a felt blanket/rug that is more than one-half black wool for one's own use — or having it made — is a nissaggiya pacittiya offense. (NP 13) 
Unless one has received authorization to do so from the Community, making a felt blanket/rug for one's own use — or having it made — less than six years after one's last one was made is a nissaggiya pacittiya offense. (NP 14) Making a felt sitting rug for one's own use — or having it made — without incorporating a one-span piece of old felt is a nissaggiya pacittiya offense. (NP 15) 
Seeking and receiving a rains-bathing cloth before the fourth month of the hot season is a nissaggiya pacittiya offense. Using a rains-bathing cloth before the last two weeks of the fourth month of the hot season is also a nissaggiya pacittiya offense. (NP 24) 
Taking thread that one has asked for improperly, and getting weavers to weave cloth from it — when they are unrelated and have not made a previous offer to weave — is a nissaggiya pacittiya offense. (NP 26) 
When donors who are not relatives — and have not invited one to ask — have arranged for weavers to weave robe cloth intended for one: 
Receiving the cloth after getting the weavers to increase the amount of thread used in it is a nissaggiya pacittiya offense. (NP 27) 
Keeping robe cloth offered in urgency past the end of the robe season after having accepted it during the last eleven days of the Rains Retreat is a nissaggiya pacittiya offense. (NP 28) 
When one is living in a dangerous wilderness abode during the first month of the cold season, and has left one of one's robes in the village where one normally goes for alms: Being away from the abode and the village for more than six nights at a stretch — except when authorized by the Community — is a nissaggiya pacittiya offense. (NP 29) 
Making use of an unmarked robe is a pacittiya offense. (Pc 58) 
Acquiring an overly large sitting cloth after making it — or having it made — for one's own use is a pacittiya offense requiring that one cut the cloth down to size before confessing the offense. (Pc 89) 
Acquiring an overly large skin-eruption covering cloth after making it — or having it made — for one's own use is a pacittiya offense requiring that one cut the cloth down to size before confessing the offense. (Pc 90) 
Acquiring an overly large rains-bathing cloth after making it — or having it made — for one's own use is a pacittiya offense requiring that one cut the cloth down to size before confessing the offense. (Pc 91) 
Acquiring an overly large robe after making it — or having it made — for one's own use is a pacittiya offense requiring that one cut the robe down to size before confessing the offense. (Pc 92) 

Food
Eating any of the five staple foods that a lay person has offered as the result of a bhikkhuni's prompting — unless the lay person was already planning to offer the food before her prompting — is a pacittiya offense. (Pc 29) 
Eating food obtained from the same public alms centre two days running, unless one is too ill to leave the centre, is a pacittiya offense. (Pc 31) 
Eating a meal to which four or more individual bhikkhus have been specifically invited — except on special occasions — is a pacittiya offense. (Pc 32) 
Eating a meal before going to another meal to which one was invited, or accepting an invitation to one meal and eating elsewhere instead, is a pacittiya offense except when one is ill or at the time of giving cloth or making robes. (Pc 33) 
Accepting more than three bowlfuls of food that the donors prepared for their own use as presents or for provisions for a journey is a pacittiya offense. (Pc 34) 
Eating staple or non-staple food that is not left-over, after having earlier in the day finished a meal during which one turned down an offer to eat further staple food, is a pacittiya offense. (Pc 35)
Eating staple or non-staple food in the period after noon until the next dawn is a pacittiya offense. (Pc 37) 
Eating food that a bhikkhu — oneself or another — formally received on a previous day is a pacittiya offense. (Pc 38) 
Eating finer foods, after having asked for them for one's own sake — except when ill — is a pacittiya offense. (Pc 39) 
Eating food that has not been formally given is a pacittiya offense. (Pc 40) 
Eating staple or non-staple food, after having accepted it from the hand of an unrelated bhikkhuni in a village area, is a patidesaniya offense. (Pd 1) 
Eating staple food accepted at a meal to which one has been invited and where a bhikkhuni has given directions, based on favouritism, as to which bhikkhu should get which food and none of the bhikkhus have dismissed her, is a patidesaniya offense. (Pd 2)
Eating staple or non-staple food, after accepting it — when one is neither ill nor invited — at the home of a family formally designated as "in training," is a patidesaniya offense. (Pd 3) 
Eating an unannounced gift of staple or non-staple food after accepting it in a dangerous wilderness abode when one is not ill is a patidesaniya offense. (Pd 4) 
A bhikkhu who is not ill should not ask for rice, bean curry or any other food not covered by Pacittiya 39. (Sk 37) 

Lodgings
Building a plastered hut — or having it built — without a sponsor, destined for one's own use, without having obtained the Community's approval, is a sanghadisesa offense. Building a plastered hut — or having it built — without a sponsor, destined for one's own use, exceeding the standard measurements, is also a sanghadisesa offense. (Sg 6) 
Building a hut with a sponsor — or having it built — destined for one's own use, without having obtained the Community's approval, is a sanghadisesa offense. (Sg 7) 
When a bhikkhu is building or repairing a large dwelling for his own use, using resources donated by another, he may not reinforce the window or door frames with more than three layers of roofing material or plaster. To exceed this is a pacittiya offense. (Pc 19) 
Acquiring a bed or bench with legs longer than eight Sugata fingerbreadths after making it — or having it made — for one's own use is a pacittiya offense requiring that one cut the legs down before confessing the offense. (Pc 87) 
Acquiring a bed or bench stuffed with cotton down after making it — or having it made — for one's own use is a pacittiya offense requiring that one remove the stuffing before confessing the offense. (Pc 88) 

Medicine
Keeping any of the five tonics — ghee, fresh butter, oil, honey or sugar/molasses — for more than seven days, unless one determines to use them only externally, is a nissaggiya pacittiya offense. (NP 23) 
When a supporter has made an offer to supply medicines to the Community: Asking the donor for medicine outside the terms of the offer when one is not ill, or asking him/her for medicine to use for a non-medicinal purpose, is a pacittiya offense. (Pc 47) 

Money
When a fund has been set up with a steward indicated by a bhikkhu: Obtaining an article from the fund as a result of having prompted the steward more than the allowable number of times is a nissaggiya pacittiya offense. (NP 10) 
Taking gold or money, having someone else take it, or consenting to its being placed down as a gift for oneself, is a nissaggiya pacittiya offense. (NP 18) 
Obtaining gold or money through trade is a nissaggiya pacittiya offense. (NP 19) 
 Bowls and other requisites
Carrying wool that has not been made into cloth or yarn for more than three leagues is a nissaggiya pacittiya offense. (NP 16)
Keeping an alms bowl for more than ten days without determining it for use or placing it under dual ownership is a nissaggiya pacittiya offense. (NP 21) 
Asking for a new alms bowl when one's current bowl is not beyond repair is a nissaggiya pacittiya offense. (NP 22) 
Acquiring a needle box made of ivory, bone or horn after making it — or having it made — for one's own use is a pacittiya offense requiring that one break the box before confessing the offense. (Pc 86)

Communal Harmony
To persist in one's attempts at a schism, after the third announcement of a formal rebuke in a meeting of the Community, is a sanghadisesa offense. (Sg 10) 
To persist in supporting a potential schismatic, after the third announcement of a formal rebuke in a meeting of the Community, is a sanghadisesa offense. (Sg 11) 
To persist in being difficult to admonish, after the third announcement of a formal rebuke in the Community, is a sanghadisesa offense. (Sg 12) 
To persist — after the third announcement of a formal rebuke in the Community — in criticizing an act of banishment performed against oneself is a sanghadisesa offense. (Sg 13)
When a trustworthy female lay follower accuses a bhikkhu of having committed a parajika, sanghadisesa or pacittiya offense while sitting alone with a woman in a private, secluded place, the Community should investigate the charge and deal with the bhikkhu in accordance with whatever he admits having done. (Ay 1) 
When a trustworthy female lay follower accuses a bhikkhu of having committed a sanghadisesa or pacittiya offense while sitting alone with a woman in a private place, the Community should investigate the charge and deal with the bhikkhu in accordance with whatever he admits having done. (Ay 2) 
Telling an unordained person of another bhikkhu's serious offense — unless one is authorized by the Community to do so — is a pacittiya offense. (Pc 9) 
Persistently replying evasively or keeping silent when being questioned in a meeting of the Community in order to conceal one's own offenses — after a formal charge of evasiveness or uncooperativeness has been brought against one — is a pacittiya offense. (Pc 12)
If a Community official is innocent of prejudice, criticizing him within earshot of another bhikkhu is a pacittiya offense. (Pc 13) 
When one has set a bed, bench, mattress or stool belonging to the Community out in the open: Leaving its immediate vicinity without putting it away or arranging to have it put away is a pacittiya offense. (Pc 14) 
When one has spread bedding out in a dwelling belonging to the Community: Departing from the monastery without putting it away or arranging to have it put away is a pacittiya offense. (Pc 15) 
Encroaching on another bhikkhu's sleeping or sitting place in a dwelling belonging to the Community, with the sole purpose of making him uncomfortable and forcing him to leave, is a pacittiya offense. (Pc 16) 
Causing a bhikkhu to be evicted from a dwelling belonging to the Community — when one's primary motive is anger — is a pacittiya offense. (Pc 17) 
Sitting or lying down on a bed or bench with detachable legs on an unplanked loft in a dwelling belonging to the Community, is a pacittiya offense. (Pc 18) 
Saying that a properly authorized bhikkhu exhorts the bhikkhunis for the sake of personal gain — when in fact that is not the case — is a pacittiya offense. (Pc 24) 
Deliberately tricking another bhikkhu into breaking Pacittiya 35, in hopes of finding fault with him, is a pacittiya offense. (Pc 36) 
Speaking or acting disrespectfully when being admonished by another bhikkhu for a breach of the training rules is a pacittiya offense. (Pc 54) 
Agitating to re-open an issue, knowing that it was properly dealt with, is a pacittiya offense. (Pc 63) 
Not informing other bhikkhus of a serious offense that one knows another bhikkhu has committed — either out of a desire to protect him from having to undergo the penalty, or to protect him from the jeering remarks of other bhikkhus — is a pacittiya offense. (Pc 64) 
Acting as the preceptor in the ordination of a person one knows to be less than 20 years old is a pacittiya offense. (Pc 65) 
Refusing to give up the wrong view that there is nothing wrong in intentionally transgressing the Buddha's ordinances — after the third announcement of a formal rebuke in a meeting of the Community — is a pacittiya offense. (Pc 68) 
Consorting, joining in communion or lying down under the same roof with a bhikkhu who has been suspended and not been restored — knowing that such is the case — is a pacittiya offense. (Pc 69) 
Supporting, receiving services from, consorting or lying down under the same roof with an expelled novice — knowing that he has been expelled — is a pacittiya offense. (Pc 70) 
Saying something as a ploy to excuse oneself from training under a training rule when being admonished by another bhikkhu for a breach of the rule is a pacittiya offense. (Pc 71) 
Criticizing the discipline in the presence of another bhikkhu, in hopes of preventing its study, is a pacittiya offense. (Pc 72)
Using half-truths to deceive others into believing that one is ignorant of the rules in the Patimokkha, after one has already heard the Patimokkha in full three times, and a formal act exposing one's deceit has been brought against one, is a pacittiya offense. (Pc 73) 
Giving a blow to another bhikkhu, when motivated by anger, is a pacittiya offense. (Pc 74) 
Making a threatening gesture against another bhikkhu when motivated by anger is a pacittiya offense. (Pc 75) 
Saying to another bhikkhu that he may have broken a rule unknowingly, simply for the purpose of causing him anxiety, is a pacittiya offense. (Pc 77) 
Eavesdropping on bhikkhus involved in an argument over an issue — with the intention of using what they say against them — is a pacittiya offense. (Pc 78) 
Complaining about a formal act of the Community to which one gave one's consent — if one knows that the act was carried out in accordance with the rule — is a pacittiya offense. (Pc 79) 
Getting up and leaving a meeting of the Community in the midst of a valid formal act — without having first given one's consent to the act, and with the intention of invalidating it — is a pacittiya offense. (Pc 80) 
After participating in a formal act of the Community giving robe-cloth to a Community official: Complaining that the Community acted out of favouritism is a pacittiya offense. (Pc 81) 
When the Community is dealing formally with an issue, the full Community must be present, as must all the individuals involved in the issue; the proceedings must follow the patterns set out in the Dhamma and Vinaya. (As 1) 
If the Community unanimously believes that a bhikkhu is innocent of a charge made against him, they may declare him innocent on the basis of his memory of the events. (As 2) 
If the Community unanimously believes that a bhikkhu was insane while committing offenses against the rules, they may absolve him of any responsibility for the offenses. (As 3) 
If a bhikkhu commits an offense, he should willingly undergo the appropriate penalty in line with what he actually did and the actual seriousness of the offense. (As 4) 
If an important dispute cannot be settled by a unanimous decision, it should be submitted to a vote. The opinion of the majority, if in accordance with the Dhamma and Vinaya, is then considered decisive. (As 5) 
If a bhikkhu admits to an offense only after being interrogated in a formal meeting, the Community should carry out an act of censure against him, rescinding it only when he has mended his ways. (As 6) 
If, in the course of a dispute, both sides act in ways unworthy of contemplatives, and the sorting out of the penalties would only prolong the dispute, the Community as a whole may make a blanket confession of its light offenses. (As 7) 
 
The Etiquette of a Contemplative
Training a novice or lay person to recite passages of Dhamma by rote is a pacittiya offense. (Pc 4) 
Lying down at the same time, in the same lodging, with a novice or layman for more than three nights running is a pacittiya offense. (Pc 5)
Digging soil or commanding that it be dug is a pacittiya offense. (Pc 10) 
Intentionally cutting, burning or killing a living plant is a pacittiya offense. (Pc 11) 
Handing food or medicine to a mendicant ordained outside of Buddhism is a pacittiya offense. (Pc 41) 
When on almsround with another bhikkhu: Sending him back so that he won't witness any misconduct one is planning to indulge in is a pacittiya offense. (Pc 42) 
To sit down intruding on a man and a woman in their private quarters — when one or both are sexually aroused, and when another bhikkhu is not present — is a pacittiya offense. (Pc 43) 
Watching a field army — or similar large military force — on active duty, unless there is a suitable reason, is a pacittiya offense. (Pc 48) 
Staying more than three consecutive nights with an army on active duty — even when one has a suitable reason to be there — is a pacittiya offense. (Pc 49) 
Going to a battlefield, a roll call, an array of the troops in battle formation or to see a review of the battle units while one is staying with an army is a pacittiya offense. (Pc 50) 
Taking an intoxicant is a pacittiya offense regardless of whether one is aware or not that it is an intoxicant. (Pc 51) 
Tickling another bhikkhu is a pacittiya offense. (Pc 52) 
Jumping and swimming in the water for fun is a pacittiya offense. (Pc 53) 
Attempting to frighten another bhikkhu is a pacittiya offense. (Pc 55) 
Lighting a fire to warm oneself — or having it lit — when one does not need the warmth for one's health is a pacittiya offense. (Pc 56) 
Bathing more frequently than once a fortnight when residing in the middle Ganges Valley, except on certain occasions, is a pacittiya offense. (Pc 57) 
Hiding another bhikkhu's bowl, robe, sitting cloth, needle case or belt — or having it hid — either as a joke or with the purpose of annoying him, is a pacittiya offense. (Pc 60) 
Travelling by arrangement with a group of thieves from one village to another — knowing that they are thieves — is a pacittiya offense. (Pc 66) 
Entering a king's sleeping chamber, unannounced, when both the king and queen are in the chamber, is a pacittiya offense. (Pc 83) 
Picking up a valuable, or having it picked up, with the intent of putting it in safe keeping for the owner — except when one finds it in a monastery or in a dwelling one is visiting — is a pacittiya offense. (Pc 84) 
A bhikkhu should wear his upper and lower robes even all around. (Sk 1 & 2)

Etiquette in Inhabited Areas
When going or sitting in inhabited areas, a bhikkhu should: 
wear his robes so that they hang down evenly, covering his chest, knees, wrists, and everything in between. 
refrain from playing with his hands or feet. 
keep his gaze lowered except when it is necessary to look up. 
refrain from hitching up his robe so that it exposes the side of his body. 
refrain from laughing loudly or speaking loudly. 
refrain from swinging his body, arms or head. 
refrain from putting his arms akimbo. 
refrain from covering his head unless the weather is unbearably cold or hot. 
refrain from walking on tiptoe or just on his heels. 
refrain from sitting with his arms around his knees. (Sk 3–26)
 
Receiving and eating alms food
When receiving alms, a bhikkhu should: 
be mindful to receive them appreciatively. 
focus his attention on the alms bowl. 
take bean curry only in proper proportion to the rice. 
accept no more food than will fill the bowl level to the top rim. (Sk 27–30)

When eating, a bhikkhu should: 
be mindful to eat his food appreciatively. 
focus his attention on the bowl. 
eat his food methodically, from one side of the bowl to the other. 
eat bean curry only in proper proportion to the rice. 
level his rice before eating from it. 
refrain from hiding his substantial food with rice, out of a hope of getting more.
refrain from looking at another bhikkhu's bowl intent on finding fault with him for not sharing his food. 
refrain from making extra-large mouthfuls. 
eat his rice in rounded mouthfuls. 
refrain from opening his mouth until he has brought food to it. 
refrain from putting his whole hand in his mouth. 
refrain from speaking when there is so much food in his mouth that it affects his pronunciation. 
refrain from lifting a large handful of food from his bowl and breaking off mouthfuls with the other hand. 
refrain from nibbling bit by bit at his mouthfuls of food. 
refrain from stuffing out his cheeks. 
refrain from shaking food off his hands or scattering rice about. 
refrain from sticking out his tongue or smacking his lips. 
refrain from making a slurping noise. 
refrain from licking his hands, his bowl or his lips. 
refrain from accepting a water vessel with a hand soiled by food. 
refrain from throwing away — in an inhabited area — bowl-rinsing water that has grains of rice in it.(Sk 31–36, 38–56) 

Teaching Dhamma
When his listener is not ill, a bhikkhu should not teach Dhamma if the listener: 
has an umbrella in his/her hand. 
has a staff in his/her hand. 
has a knife in his/her hand. 
has a weapon in his/her hand. 
is wearing shoes, boots or sandals. 
is sitting in a vehicle when the bhikkhu is in a lower vehicle or not in a vehicle at all. 
is lying down when the bhikkhu is sitting or standing. 
is sitting holding his/her knees. 
is wearing a hat or a turban, or has covered his/her head with a scarf or shawl. 
is sitting on a seat while the bhikkhu is sitting on the ground. 
is sitting on a high seat while the bhikkhu is sitting on a lower seat.
is sitting while the bhikkhu is standing. 
is walking ahead of the bhikkhu. 
is walking on a path while the bhikkhu is walking beside the path. (Sk 57–72)

Urinating, defecating & spitting
Unless he is ill, a bhikkhu should not urinate or defecate while standing. (Sk 73) 
Unless he is ill, a bhikkhu should not urinate, defecate or spit on living crops or in water that is fit for bathing or drinking. (Sk 74–75)

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Appendix D: Devotion(118)

"...Devotional service and Meditation are not very much different from each other. What we learn in devotional service culminates in the practice of meditation. For instance, we recite in the Anattalakkhana Sutta the three characteristics —impermanence, unsatisfactoriness and selflessness— of all conditional things. One realises the three characteristics when one attains the goal of meditation. What we learn in Adittapariyàya Sutta is also what we learn from our own meditational experience. What we recite when making such offerings as flowers and incense to the Buddha is the recollection of impermanence which is one of the three characteristics of all conditional things. Moreover, one of the benefits of the meditation practice is to deepen our devotion to the Buddha, Dhamma and Sangha through our understanding of Dhamma. And it is this devotion that we express in words when we spend time in vandanà practice.
The Theravada Buddhist devotional service has been developed independently by different temples according to their own needs and feelings. Even today, each Buddhist Temple in the same country has its own vandanà service. Therefore, there has not been one standard devotional service system accepted by every Theravada Buddhist temple in the world.
How to Set Up a Shrine
Those who wish to develop a vandanà routine for themselves should set off a separate place in their residence to be used exclusively for devotional practice and meditation. If space permits, a small extra room could be turned into a shrine room. If such a room is not available one might use a spacious closet or separate off a small section of a room by hanging a curtain. If space in one's house is very small, then a reasonably large table could be set up or at least a corner table could be turned into an altar or a shelf high on a wall could be used to keep a Buddha image and treated as the focus of one's vandanà.
Setting off a separate place for devotional service and meditation in one's own home creates a very peaceful and serene psychological atmosphere. As our association with the place increases, it becomes possible merely by entering it to create a calming and soothing feeling in the mind. The repeated practice of this can serve us a constant reminder of the ultimate value of our lives —that beyond all our immediate aims and activities our final goal is to attain enlightenment and liberation from suffering. When one treats one's shrine area as a sanctuary where the Triple Gem —the Buddha, the Dhamma and the Sangha— reside, one can constantly be reminded of one's reverence towards them. By reciting daily devotions and chanting suttas one leaves wholesome and positive vibrations in one's shrine room. These vibrations also aid most positively one's practice of meditation.
The area set off for devotional practice and meditation should be a quiet, pleasant and private place. If the shrine is set up in a sleeping area, it should stand in the direction of the head of the bed, not at its foot. As the head is the topmost part of the body, the head should be directed towards the shrine which has the objects of veneration. Entering the shrine, one should remove one's shoes. In winter one does not have to remove one's socks. This is a customary sign of respect. It promotes cleanliness in the shrine area. It also makes it easier to assume the correct postures for the devotional practice and the practice of meditation.
Objects of Veneration on the Altar
The central figure on the altar is the Buddha image in sitting posture. If one cannot find a suitable Buddha image, one may use a Buddha picture. One should remember that the Buddha image is not alive, but is the most outstanding representation of the embodiment of perfected physical attributes of the Buddha, intended to render visible the distinguished qualities of the Master —his serenity, composure, peacefulness, and purity. The attention directed towards these attributes of the Buddha during the devotional practice helps generate confidence and devotion towards the Buddha, makes the mind calm, and arouses inspiration to follow the path laid down by the Buddha.
Training the mind to cultivate reverence and dedication towards the Buddha is an essential component of the practice of the Dhamma. Therefore, the Buddha image or the picture should be set up on a special table or stand reserved for it. The Buddha image should be placed a little higher than other articles of spiritual significance, such as images of great disciples, eminent teachers, Bodhi leaves, scriptural texts, Dhamma wheels, miniature stupas. And all of them must be placed a little higher than the head so that one is able to look up towards them at a gentle angel when kneeling down. The altar table should be covered with a clean cloth of colours and designs conducive to contemplative states of mind. A soft mat or rug can be laid out in front of the Buddha image, to be used for kneeling during devotional practice and meditation.
No other image should be placed above the Buddha image. One should not sit with the feet pointing to the image, remain sitting or standing with the back to it, or engage in worldly conversation in the shrine room. Buddha images should not be used as items of living room decoration.
Before the actual devotional practice begins one should place offerings on a small table placed in front of the main altar. If only one table is available for use, the Buddha image can be placed on a slightly elevated platform and the offerings, such as lights, incense, and flowers, can be set in front of the image. The lights may be either candles, oil lamps, or decorative electric lights. The flowers may be either artificial or natural but whenever possible fresh flowers should be offered. Other articles of offering may be water, fruits, sweets, and prepared food. However, food and fruits should be offered before noon. To hold lights, flowers, and incense, candle-holders, vases and an urn filled with sand should be used.
One should understand that the Buddha image does not use any of these items of offering. We use them to express our veneration of the Buddha and our self-abnegation. In order to show our gratitude and appreciation to the supremely enlightened Buddha we offer food that nourishes our bodies, flowers and incense that please our eyes and nose. They are a symbolic way of offering all that we cherish in the material world to the supreme emblem of spiritual perfection, the Fully Enlightened One. After placing these offerings on the table the verses of offering should be recited following the reverential salutation to the Buddha, the Dhamma and the Sangha.
The Way of Salutation
The most appropriate devotional practice begins with a triple prostration before the Buddha image. The triple prostration ensures the understanding and conviction of one's sincerity. It is a formal act of deep commitment to any honest and mindful deed. While prostrating one should collect one's attention and bring it to bear upon the reaffirmation of one's faith in the Buddha, the Dhamma and the Sangha.
This act of prostration is called "five-point prostration" (pa¤canga vandanà), because in this position both hands are placed together in front of the body with the thumbs and fingertips touching and slightly cupped at the palms. This is simply a form of respectful salutation used frequently as a greeting for monks or nuns and also for saluting parents and other elders. Holding hands in this position one should kneel down— the lower part of the legs under the thighs and the feet under the buttocks. Although there is no standard way of placing the hands down on the floor, we recommend that the palms be faced up or down and the hands separated, leaving enough room for the forehead to touch the ground. The forearms up to the elbows should be on the ground with the elbows touching the knees. Thus, the body is resting on the ground at five points: the forehead, forearms, and lower legs. Following this the upper part of the body is raised and the hands rejoined in "a¤jali". The full prostration should be done three times altogether. 
The three prostrations are done in order to express reverence to the Triple Gem and to inspire a posture of devotion, modesty, and openness. It also brings the additional benefit of curbing pride and arrogance. Those who are humble open themselves to the guidance of others and thus become capable of learning and growing. Reverence and humility are considered to be blessings in Buddhism because with these two qualities one can lower one's head which is the topmost part of one's body holding the brain and the main sense organs. By bowing down before the image of the supremely enlightened Buddha one prepares oneself to accept his teaching and guidance leading up to the attainment of enlightenment.
Formal and Informal Vandanà
When you do vandanà by yourself in your home or at a Vihàra you may kneel down comfortably and start your vandanà directly with the salutation to the Buddha, then proceed to the formulas for the refuges and precepts.
When you do formal vandanà with a monk or nun present, you make a formal request to a monk or nun to administer the refuges and precepts. This procedure preserves the religious relationship between the laity and clergy in the heritage of Theravada Buddhist practice.
After you have made the formal request the monk or nun begins the administration of the refuges with the following formula of salutation to the Buddha. "Namo tassa bhagavato arahato sammà-sambuddhassa." (I pay homage to the Blessed One, the Worthy One, the Fully Enlightened One.) The lay person repeats it three times after the monk or nun. The word for word meaning of the formula is this: "Namo" = "I pay homage"; "tassa" = "to him"; "Bhagavato" = "to the Exalted One"; "Arahato" = "to The Worthy One"; "Sammà Sambuddhassa" = "to The Fully Enlightened One".
After the salutation repeat another formula three times to take Refuge in the Buddha, the Dhamma and the Sangha. These three are called the Three Refuges in the Buddhist religious tradition. They also are called the Triple Gem. By taking refuge in the Triple Gem one is initiated into the practice of the Buddha's teaching. From that point on one can be considered to be a Buddhist. However, the real Buddhist is the one who lives a life following all the principles of the Buddha's teaching with full understanding.
Therefore the recitation of the formula of taking the Refuge should be done with full understanding of the meaning of the Three Refuges. The first of the three Refuges is the Buddha who is the discoverer and expounder of the path to liberation. He is the supremely enlightened being who elevated human dignity to the highest spiritual attainment, purifying the mind through the practice of the path laid down by all enlightened beings including himself. The Dhamma is the Buddha's teaching of the truth. The Sangha is the community of enlightened disciples of the Buddha. They are four pairs and eight individuals. The four pairs are those who have attained the Stream-entry Path and Fruit, those who have attained the Never-Returners' Path and Fruit and those who have attained the Arahants' Path and Fruits. When these pairs are separated there are Eight Individuals. The definition and qualification of the Buddha, the Dhamma and the Sangha are given in the Vandanà section of this book.
Taking refuge is purely a mental process of accepting the Triple Gem as one's own supreme guiding principles. In order to achieve the goal of these principles one has to follow their meanings. This means translating the Buddha's teachings into action and living by the Dhamma (Dhammaü kàyena passati).
The way of following the Triple Gem is, in fact, outlined in the next section following the Triple Gem, i.e. the precepts which are divided into several categories. In this Vandanà book we have included only the five precepts and the eight precepts which lay devotees are expected to observe.(119) These are training rules that each person takes upon oneself voluntarily to uphold without any sense of intimidation or supplication to anybody outside oneself. Although putting them into action is a real challenge to one's integrity, the serious devotee makes every humanly possible effort to maintain them. If one is fully committed to the Triple Gem one may not find it impossible to put these principles into one's daily practice.
By observing these precepts you practice loving-kindness in action. When you abstain from killing you respect all living beings. When you abstain from not taking what is not given, you practice appreciative joy —you rejoice in others' happiness of having what they have. By abstaining from sexual misconduct you respect and honour the dignity of other persons. By abstaining from telling lies, you not only honour and respect truthfulness but you also maintain your own dignity and self-respect. By abstaining from taking intoxicating drinks and drugs you remain sober with a steady state of mind which can easily be trained to cultivate mindfulness leading up to the attainment of enlightenment.
If you take the three Refuges and the Five Precepts or Eight Precepts from a monk/nun will admonish you to practice them diligently. Then he/she will summarise in a verse the benefits of putting these principles into practice.
This is followed by the recitation of the twenty-four attributes of the Buddha, the Dhamma and the Sangha each having nine, six and nine attributes respectively. These formulas go back to the time of the Buddha himself. He used them on many occasion to describe the Triple Gem. Reciting these formulas with full understanding of their meaning and with a calm and composed state of mind installs such a deep sense of devotion in the mind of the devotee that they have been included among the subjects of meditation as recollections (anussati). In the verses preceded by the Dhamma vandanà you will read "Dhammaü ca tividhaü varaü" (excellent threefold Dhamma). The Threefold Dhamma is the Dhamma of scriptural study (pariyatti dhamma), the Dhamma of practice (pañipatti dhamma) and the Dhamma of realisation (pativedha dhamma). Also, you will read "Sanghaü ca tividhuttamaü" (Noble Threefold Sangha). The threefold Sangha is the community of arahants, the community of learners, and the order of fully ordained monks and nuns.
Sharing or Dedication of Merits
"Merits" means skills. When you have skills, you can share them with others. In the ordinary sense of the word, "merits" means that which you can sell to or buy from others. You are promoted in your job or academic level according to your merits. Similarly, in the spiritual field, the things that you do to promote your peace and happiness are called meritorious acts. It is these acts that elevate your spiritual level and lead to the attainment of enlightenment. These spiritual merits are committed with a pure state of mind which follows you as your own shadow which never leaves you. When you do vandanà you do it with a pure state of mind. You admire and appreciate the qualities of the Triple Gem and wish to emulate and adopt them in your own life. When you make such conscious effort to espouse them, your mind creates room for them and you endeavour to live a life similar to those noble ones who are the embodiments of peace and happiness.
Having cultivated these noble qualities, you wish to share them with your dear ones, known ones and even unknown ones. Sharing what you highly appreciate and admire with others is a very generous and compassionate act. Therefore in Buddhist tradition sharing merits with others is also a meritorious deed which is called the dedication of merit anumodanà). Rejoicing in others' merits also is considered to be meritorious. This means you support and promote the wholesome thoughts, words and deeds of yourself as well as those of others. As you do this with pure intention, this kind of wholesome deed is called wholesome kamma. What you really do in your vandanà is make an effort to cultivate the thought of practising the Noble Eightfold Path. By accepting the Triple Gem as your only guides and determining to practice the precepts you lay the foundation of morality. By contemplating the qualities of the Triple Gem, reflecting on the nature of all conditioned things and reciting the verse on Right Concentration, you develop the spiritual atmosphere to take steps in the practice of meditation. All these are meritorious thoughts.
In memory of deceased relatives people perform numerous merit-sharing ceremonies in order to purify their own minds. They may give something to religious places or to the poor, observe the precepts or teach the Dhamma. Some people may even become ordained for a short period of time and stay in monasteries. Having done one or more of these things relatives or friends perform a ceremony in seven days, three months, or one year in memory of the deceased.
Before the ceremony starts, the lay people fill a pot with clean water and keep it before them during the chanting. They also have two bowls, a smaller bowl inside a larger one. Towards the end of the ceremony relatives or friends of the deceased pour water from a pitcher or teapot into an empty bowl placed in a larger bowl saying "May my/our departed relatives share these merits." (idaü no ¤àtinaü hotu sukhità hontu ¤àtayo.) They let the water overflow into the smaller bowl. Symbolically, overflowing water signifies the generosity of living relatives or friends. Water represents life, for there is life where water is. The water in this ceremony also represents the merits without which none can be peaceful and happy just as without water none is able to survive. Just as water gives beings life, meritorious deeds give beings vitality to live. The empty cup represents the deceased relative or friend who is empty of happiness. Just as the cup fills up with water, so the minds of the deceased will be filled with joy and happiness after sharing the merits. Of course, not all the deceased will be in a position to share our merits. Only those who are born in an unfortunate state of existence called "spirits who subsist on the offerings of others" (Paradattupajivi peta) can share our merits. During the merit-sharing ceremony verses are recited by monks or nuns at the end of the pouring of the water into the empty cup.
This merit-sharing ceremony, according to the Tirokuddha Sutta, was introduced by the Buddha himself in order to help King Bimbisara of Magadha in sharing merits with his deceased relatives who had been reborn among the spirits who subsist on the offerings of others.
Forgiveness
At the end of vandanà we ask the Buddha, the Dhamma and the Sangha to forgive us if we have done some wrong to them. Although the Buddha is not physically present in front of us, we have the image of the Buddha to represent and remind us of Him. The effect of paying respect to the name of the Buddha is not diminished in our minds whether the Buddha is present in front of us or not. Mere confidence in Him is what is necessary and sufficient for us to pay homage. The Dhamma taught by Him represents the Buddha. One who sees the Dhamma with wisdom sees the Buddha's wisdom, compassion and enlightenment in it. When we pay homage to the Buddha, we feel that we are in front of the living Buddha. This feeling arouses our deep devotion and dedication to Him. Therefore when we request the Buddha to pardon us for the faults we have committed unmindfully, we humble ourselves and determine not to commit them again. Admitting one's faults becomes a sincere and honest confession.
Uposatha
We added the Uposatha section for lay people who live at the Bhàvanà Centre to repeat every morning and practice while they live in this Centre. The people who intend to become ordained at this Centre are also expected to observe the Eight Precepts daily. People not living in the Meditation Centre may use this section to intensify their effort in Dhamma practice on Uposatha Day which is determined by the lunar calender, falling on the full-moon day, the new-moon day, and the two quarter-moon days of each lunar month. The full-moon day is considered to be the most important of all of them. On the Uposatha day the Bhikkhus and Bhikkhunãs living in a community of four of more, gather to recite the rules of the monastic order (Pañimokkha). In Buddhist countries lay Buddhists generally go to the Vihàras to pass the day and night, often observing the three refuges and eight precepts which you find in this vandanà books They spend their time reading Dhamma books, listening to Dhamma sermons, meditating and discussing the Dhamma. Sometimes a lay Upasaka (man observing the precepts) or Upasika (woman observing the precepts) who is well versed in the Dhamma will preach Dhamma to the rest of the people if a monk or nun is not available.
On close scrutiny you will notice that all the precepts are meant to discipline your mind and focus your attention on the practice of the Dhamma. They are not formulated for parroting, but for putting into action. When the precepts are put into action, they bring a very good discipline necessary for the practice of meditation, calming the mind, deepening the understanding of Dhamma and liberating our minds from numerous psychic irritants. The lay follower undertaking this code of discipline follows a monastic life similar to that of a novice monk or nun who observes these eight precepts and two additional ones.
Four Protections
Regarding The Four Protective Meditations: recollecting the Buddha's attributes at the time you pay homage to him is absolutely necessary in order to reinforce your confidence in him. The Mettà Sutta, the Mittanisaüsa Sutta, the Khandha Paritta, and "Sharing Loving-Kindness" are verses which we selected so that you may cultivate benevolent thoughts during the vandanà practice.
You can choose one to recite each time you have vandanà, or if you have time, you may recite them all. The third protection is "Unattractiveness of the Body." This section has been introduced to vandanà by ancient Buddhists in order to reduce our attachment to the body by reminding us again and again of the true nature of the body. This knowledge reduces our pride and thought of permanence of the body. The last section of this protection is the recollection of death. As most people do not want to know anything about death, there is no opportunity for them to know the true nature of life. This recollection brings us face to face with the reality of life. It helps weaken the attachment to life, pleasure, and wealth; it produces a sense of renunciation and compassion; and, when the time for our own parting arrives, it enables us to die in calm and self-possession. It also is used in some countries for recitation during the funeral ceremony held for a deceased relative or friend and for commemorating a death anniversary.

[Ven Dr Henepola Gunaratana, Rt. 1 Box 218-3, High View, WV 26808, USA (Tel: (303)856-3241)]

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Appendix E: Pàli Pronunciation(120)

The Pàli alphabet is made up of forty-one letters. These are divided into eight vowels, thirty-two consonants, and one pure nasal sound called niggahita [the ü]. ...
 The Vowels:
a 	is like	u	in	hut 
à 	is like	a	in	father
i	is like	i	in	pin
ã 	is like	ee	in	beet
u 	is like	u	in	pull
å 	is like	oo	in	pool
e 	is like	a	in	bake
o 	is like	o	in	hole
 The Consonants:
k	is like	k	in 	king
[kh	is an	aspirated	k]
g	is like	g	in	gone
[gh	is an	aspirated 	g]
ü and ï are like ng	in	sing
c	is like	ch	in	church
[ch	is an aspirated	c]
j	is like	j	in	joy
[jh	is an	aspirated	j]
¤	is like	ny	in	canyon
ñ	is like	t	in	top
[ñh	is an	aspirated	ñ]
t	is like	t	in	thigh
[th	is an	aspirated	t  never as in the English the]
d	is like	th	in	the
[dh	is an	aspirated	d]
n	is like	n	in	name
ó	is like	d	in	dog
[óh	is an	aspirated	ó]
õ 	is like	n	in	not
p	is like	p	in	pot
[ph	is an	aspirated	p never as in the English photo]
b	is like	b	in	bat
[bh	is an	aspirated	b]
m	is like	m	in	mother
y	is like	y	in	yes
r	is like	r	in	run
l	is like	l	in	long
v	is like	v	in	vine
s	is like	s	in	sun
h	is like	h	in	hot

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Appendix F: Local Customs and Approaches(121)

(1) A Lay Buddhist's Guide to the Monks' Code of Conduct ((c) see Endnote 122)
Buddhism
The word Buddha means the Awakened One, the one who is undeluded.
Two thousand five hundred years ago Gotama Buddha discovered and began to teach a way through which others may awaken to truth, Dhamma. During his forty-five years of teaching in India he founded a monastic order, the Sangha. The Buddha, Dhamma and the Sangha are called the Triple Gem because it is rare and precious in this world to come across a wise teacher, the Buddha; a teaching that inclines one to truth and peace, the Dhamma; and living beings willing to dedicate and commit their lives to practising and realising that truth, the Sangha. Wisdom, Truth and Virtue —the Three Jewels— are the guiding principles of all Buddhists.
Serpentine [Bodhinyana] Buddhist Monastery
The primary function of Serpentine [Bodhinyana] Monastery is to offer people the occasion and opportunity to live a monastic life founded upon moral discipline and guided by wise reflection. The teachings of the Buddha point to individual selfishness as the cause of human suffering. The contemplative atmosphere and rigorous discipline allow a monk or nun to recognise, investigate, and let go of the many manifestations of selfishness: restlessness, pride, envy, boredom, desire, irritation, aversion, doubt, etc. All these moods and states naturally arise in the mind of a religious seeker. Surrendering to a monastic form and giving up one's personal preferences for the sake of community harmony, bring up fully —and often painfully— into consciousness a lot of selfish resistance. Rather than trying to repress these unpleasant tendencies out of the mind or indulge them by following impulses and desires indiscriminately, meditators choose a middle path. They see these things as they are in the present moment, habitual reactions to the changing circumstances of life. Taking the present moment as a teacher that can show us something —rather than as a personal problem that must be overcome— the mendicant strives to learn from life and realise the true nature of things. As one lets go of selfishness and experiences the peace of not contending with the world —within or without— joy, compassion and gratitude arise. The Sangha expresses this by offering the Buddha's teaching and a place to practise for all who are interested.
The Vinaya
The Sangha is structured by a code of discipline called the Vinaya. Laid down by the Buddha, this code sets an impeccable standard by which bhikkhus live, so that striving for a noble purpose they may hold before themselves and others an example of virtue, restraint and simplicity.
The Vinaya also creates a firm bond between the monastic order and the laity. They work together in cultivating a practical way to free the heart from suffering and conflict, enabling people to dwell in harmony with the true nature of things. The Sangha is not allowed to possess means of independent support. Without daily lay support, the Sangha cannot continue, since according to their rules bhikkhus are prohibited from holding money, property or storing food.
The Sangha and Lay People
Dependent on the generosity of the laity to provide the basic requisites —food, robes, shelter and medicines— the Sangha is offered an opportunity to live simply with few worldly obligations. Functioning in relationship to a lay community, bhikkhus must train themselves to be worthy of respect, to be worthy of the faith and generosity on which they depend. In return the Sangha offers spiritual guidance and reflection to the laity by verbal teachings and by its living presence. Dependence upon others reminds mendicant monks and nuns of life's uncertainty, and it stimulates them to reflect daily whether they are living in a way worthy to receive alms. For the laity this opportunity to give provides occasions for unselfish generosity and a joyful and direct participation in the spiritual life. The Sangha and the laity support, balance and nourish one another in a beautiful way beneficial to the whole community.
A Lay Buddhist's Guide to the Monk's Code of Conduct
The Buddhist Monks' Discipline is a refined mode of conduct which is conducive to the arising of mindfulness and wisdom. This discipline, called Vinaya, is not an end in itself, but merely an efficacious tool which can be instrumental in leading to the end of suffering.
Apart from the direct training the Vinaya affords, it also establishes a relationship with lay people without whose cooperation it would be very difficult to live as a bhikkhu. A bhikkhu is able to live as a mendicant because lay people support him. This gives rise to a relationship of respect and gratitude in which both lay person and bhikkhu are called upon to practise their particular life styles and responsibilities with sensitivity and sincerity.
Many of the Vinaya rules were created specifically to avoid offending lay people or giving rise to misunderstanding or suspicion (for example, the rules stipulating the presence of another male when a bhikkhu and a woman would otherwise be alone together). As naturally no bhikkhu wishes to offend by being fussy and difficult to look after, and no lay Buddhist wishes to accidentally cause a bhikkhu to transgress his discipline, this pamphlet attempts to clarify the major aspects of the Vinaya as it relates to lay people.
Providing the means for support
The Vinaya as laid down by the Buddha defines in its many practical rules, the status of a bhikkhu as being one of mendicancy. Having no personal means of support is a very practical means of understanding the instinct to seek security. Furthermore, the need to seek alms gives the monk a source of contemplation on what things are actually necessary —which are summarised as the four requisites. The four requisites —food, clothing, shelter and medicines— are what lay people can offer as a practical instance of expressing generosity, appreciation or the faith in belonging to the Buddhist Community. Rather than providing requisites to particular bhikkhus whom one likes or knows, the practising Buddhist learns to offer to the Sangha as an act of faith and respect for the Sangha as a whole. In like fashion, bhikkhus respond by sharing merit, spreading goodwill and the teachings of the Buddha to all those who wish to hear, irrespective of personal feelings.
Food
A bhikkhu is allowed to collect, receive and consume food between dawn and midday (taken to be 12 noon). He is not allowed to consume food outside of this time and not allowed to store food overnight. Here food is defined as anything that is eatable or drinkable except those specially allowed as medicines (see later) or plain water (which he can consume without it being offered). Although a bhikkhu lives on whatever is offered, naturally vegetarianism is encouraged.
A bhikkhu must have all eatables and drinkables (including medicines) except plain water, formally offered into his hands or placed on or into something in direct contact with his hands. In order to prevent contact with a woman, he will generally set down a cloth to receive things offered by a lady. He is not allowed to cure or cook food except in particular emergencies.
In the Forest Tradition of which our resident monks are a part, milk is considered to be a food, as are malted drinks such as Ovaltine and Milo, so none of these would be allowed outside the proper times.
In accordance with the discipline a bhikkhu is prohibited from eating fruit or vegetables containing fertile seeds. So when offering such things, a lay person can either remove the seeds, or make the fruit allowable by slightly damaging it with a knife. This is done by piercing the fruit and saying at the same time "kappiyaü bhante" (meaning "I make this allowable, sir.").
It is instructive to note that rather than limiting what can be offered, the Vinaya lays emphasis on the mode of offering. It regards the proper way of offering as being when the lay person approaches within a forearm's distance of the bhikkhu, has a respectful manner (so for example, one would try to be lower than the bhikkhu) and is offering something that a bhikkhu can manage to carry(!). All this serves to make the act of offering a mindful and reflective one irrespective of what one is giving —and allows great joy to arise.
Clothing
Forest bhikkhus generally make their own robes from the cloth that is given. Plain white cotton is always useful (it can be dyed to the correct dull ochre) or worsted for the thicker robe (Sanghati). In a cold climate, the basic 'triple robe' of the Buddha is supplemented with sweaters, beanies, socks etc., and these, of an appropriate brown colour, can also be offered.
There is a rule that a bhikkhu has to be with his basic 'triple robe' at dawn. This means that he should be in the same room as the robes (if alone) or within forearm's distance (if with people). This is something to be remembered if washing robes overnight...
Shelter
Solitary, silent and simple would be a fair description of the ideal lodging for a bhikkhu. From the scriptures it seems that the general standard of lodging was to neither cause discomfort nor impair health, yet not to be indulgently luxurious. Modest furnishings of a simpler and utilitarian nature were also allowed, there being a precept against using 'high, luxurious beds and chairs' —i.e. items that are opulent by current standards. So a simple bed is an allowable thing to use, although actually most bhikkhus prefer the firmer surface provided by a mat or thick blanket spread on the floor.
The bhikkhu's precepts do not allow him to sleep more than three nights with an unordained male, and not even to lie down in the same room with a female. In providing a temporary room for a night one need not provide a great deal of furniture, a simple spare room that is private is adequate.
Medicine
A bhikkhu is allowed to use medicines if they are offered in the same way as food. Once offered, neither food nor medicine should be handled again by a lay person, as that renders it no longer allowable. Medicines can be considered as those things that are specifically for illness; those things that have a tonic or reviving quality (such as tea or sugar); and certain items which have a nutritional value in times of debilitation, hunger or fatigue (such as cheese, miso soup).
There are different limitations regarding the amount of time that a bhikkhu can store such 'medicines':
One day allowance: Filtered fruit juice (i.e. free of pulp) of any fruit smaller than an average fist. These juices are allowed to be received and drunk any time between one dawn and the dawn of the next day —this time-limit prevents the danger of fermentation.
Seven day allowance: Ghee, animal or vegetable oil, honey, any kind of sugar (including molasses) and cheese can be kept and consumed any time up to the dawn of the eighth day after which they were received.
'Lifetime' allowance: Pharmaceutical medicines, vitamins; plant roots such as ginger, ginseng; herbal decoctions such as camomile; beverages such as tea, coffee and cocoa.
Sundries
As circumstances changed, the Buddha allowed monks to make use of other small requisites, such as needles, a razor, etc. In modern times, such things might include a pen, a clock a torch, etc. All of these were to be plain and simple, costly or luxurious items being expressly forbidden.
Invitation (Pavarana)
The principles of mendicancy forbid a monk from asking for anything unless he is ill, without having received invitation. So, when receiving food, for example, a bhikkhu makes himself available in a situation where people wish to give food. In Buddhist countries, people make their intentions clear by standing by the side of the road with bowls of food, or even verbally invite the monks to come and receive alms. At no time does the monk request food. This principle should be bourn in mind when offering food —rather than asking a monk what he would like, it is better to ask if you can offer some food. Considering that the meal will be the one meal of the day, offer what seems right recognising that the bhikkhu will take what he needs and leave the rest. A good way to offer is to bring bowls of food to the bhikkhu and let him choose what he needs from each bowl.
One can also make an invitation, 'pavarana', to cover any circumstances that you might not be aware of —a health problem, need for a toothbrush, etc., by saying, "Bhante, if you are in need of any medicine or requisites, please let me know". To avoid misunderstanding it is better to be quite specific, such as —"Bhante, if you need any more food..." "If you need a new pair of sandals...". Unless specified an invitation can only be accepted for up to four months after which time it lapses unless renewed. Specifying the time limit, or giving some indication of the scope of the offering is good, in order to prevent misunderstanding —so that, for instance, when you are intending to offer some fruit juice, the bhikkhu doesn't get the impression you want to buy a washing machine for the monastery!
This brings us to another point of consideration:
Inappropriate Items—including money
T.V.s, videos when for entertainment should not be used by a bhikkhu. Under certain circumstances, a Dhamma video or programme may be watched. In general, luxurious items are inappropriate for a monk to accept. This is because they are conducive to attachment in his own mind, and excite envy, possibly even the intention to steal, in the mind of another person. This is unwholesome kamma. It also looks bad for an alms mendicant, living on charity as a source of inspiration to others, to have opulent belongings. One who is content with little is a light to a world where consumer instincts and greed are whipped up in people's minds.
Although the Vinaya specifies a prohibition about accepting and handling 'gold and silver', the real spirit of it is to forbid use and control over funds, whether these are bank notes or credit cards. The Vinaya even specifically prohibits a bhikkhu from having someone else receive money on his behalf. In practical terms, monasteries are financially controlled by lay stewards, who then make open invitation for the Sangha to ask for what they need, under the direction of the Abbot. So junior monks even have to ask an appointed agent (generally a senior bhikkhu or abbot) if they may take up the steward's offer —to pay for dental treatment, obtain footwear or medicines, for example. This means that as far as is reasonably possible, the donations that are given to the stewards to support the Sangha are not wasted on unnecessary whims.
If a lay person wishes to give to a particular bhikkhu, but is uncertain of what he needs, he should make invitation. Any financial donations should not be made to 'X Bhikkhu' but to the stewards of the monastery, perhaps mentioning if it's for a particular item or for the needs of a certain bhikkhu. For items such as travelling expenses, money can be given to an accompanying anagarika (dressed in white) or accompanying lay person, who can buy tickets, drinks for the journey, or anything else that the bhikkhu may need at that time. It is quite a good training for a lay person to actually consider what items are necessary, and offer those rather than money.
Relationships (Bhikkhus with women, nuns with men)
Bhikkhus and nuns lead lives of total celibacy, in which any kind of erotic behaviour is forbidden. This includes even suggestive speech, or physical contact with lustful intent —both of which are very serious offenses for monks and nuns. As one's intent may not be always obvious (even to oneself) and one's words not always guarded, it is a general principle for monks and nuns to refrain from any physical contact with members of the opposite sex. Bhikkhus should have a male present who can understand what is being said when conversing with a lady, and a similar situation holds true for nuns.
Much of this standard of behaviour is to prevent scandalous gossip or misunderstanding occurring. In the stories that explain the origination of a rule, there are examples of bhikkhus being accused of being a woman's lover, of a woman misunderstanding a bhikkhu's reason for being with her, and even of a bhikkhu being thrashed by a jealous husband!
So to prevent such misunderstandings —however groundless— a bhikkhu has to be accompanied by a man whenever in the presence of a woman —on a journey or sitting alone in a secluded place (one would not call a meditation hall or a bus station a secluded place). Generally, bhikkhus would also refrain from carrying on correspondence with women, other than for matters pertaining to the monastery, travel arrangements, providing basic information, etc., When teaching Dhamma, even in a letter, it is easy for inspiration and compassion to turn into attachment.
Teaching Dhamma
The bhikkhu as Dhamma teacher must find the appropriate occasion to give the profound and insightful teachings of the Buddha to those who wish to hear it. There are numerous definitions of what is appropriate —where a bhikkhu is not annoying people by teaching without invitation, nor in the context where the teachings cannot be reflected upon adequately. This is a significant point, as the Buddha's teachings are meant to be a vehicle that one should contemplate silently and then apply. The value of Dhamma is greatly reduced if it is just received as chitchat, or speculations for debate.
Accordingly for a Dhamma talk, it is good to set up a room where the teachings can be listened to with respect being shown to the speaker. In terms of etiquette —graceful conversation rather than rude— this means affording the speaker a seat that is higher than his audience, not pointing one's feet at the speaker, removing headgear when listening to the talk, and not interrupting the speaker. Questions are welcome at the end of the talk.
Also as a sign of respect, when inviting a bhikkhu, it is usual for the person making the invitation to also make the travel arrangements —directly or indirectly.
Minor Matters of Etiquette
Vinaya also extends into the realm of convention and custom. Such observances that it mentions are not 'rules' but skilful means of manifesting beautiful behaviour. In monasteries, there is some emphasis on such matters as a means of establishing harmony, order and pleasant relationships within a community. Lay people may be interested in applying such conventions for their own training in sensitivity, but it should not be considered as something that is necessarily expected of them.
Firstly, there is the custom of bowing to the shrine or teacher. This is done when first entering their presence or when taking leave. Done gracefully at the appropriate time, this is a beautiful gesture that honours the person who does it; at an inappropriate time, done compulsively, it appears foolish. Another common gesture of respect is to place the hands so that the palms are touching, the fingers pointing upwards, and the hands held immediately in front of the chest. The gesture of raising the hands to the slightly lowered forehead is called 'a¤jalã'. This is a pleasant means of greeting, bidding farewell, saluting the end of a Dhamma talk, concluding an offering.
Body language is something that is well understood in Asian countries. Apart from the obvious reminder to sit up for a Dhamma talk rather than loll or recline on the floor, one shows a manner of deference by ducking slightly if having to walk between a bhikkhu and the person he is speaking to. Similarly, one would not stand looming over a bhikkhu to talk to him or offer him something, but rather approach him at the level at which he is sitting.
May all beings hear the Dhamma.
May all beings be at peace.

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(2) Bodhinyanarama's Advice for Guests((c) See Endnote 123)
Minor Matters of Etiquette
Firstly, there is the custom of bowing to a shrine or teacher. The triple bow to the Buddha, Dhamma and Sangha, is usually practised upon entering and leaving the main meditation hall. At the end of a formal meditation period, respect is also paid to the senior monk. Done gracefully at the appropriate time, bowing can be a beautiful gesture of humility; in a giving of oneself to the training, and a recognition of the sense of the sacred.
To bow correctly, bring the forehead all the way to the floor; have elbows near the knees which should be about three inches apart. Bow slowly, being mindful of the body. As nearly as possible, the buttocks should be kept on the heels.
Another common gesture of respect is holding the hands, palms together, in front of the heart. This is a pleasant means of greeting, bidding farewell, formally addressing the senior monk, and concluding an offering.
Terms of address
The Abbot is usually addressed as "Ajahn", which comes from the Thai, and means "Teacher". Other monks can be addressed as "Venerable", or the Thai equivalent "Tahn". These designations may or not be followed by the ordained name of the individual. Alternatively, any monk can be called "Bhante", a more general term. In this tradition it is considered impolite to refer to monks by their ordained names without the appropriate honorific preceding it. [See also page .]
Body Language
The practice of mindfulness begins with the body, and the monk's code of discipline gives a set of standards for refined and graceful physical behaviour. In moving around the monastery one tries to avoid calling attention to oneself through causing noise or disturbance. In the meditation hall, lying down, especially during a formal talk, or pointing one's feet at the Buddha-image is considered disrespectful according to Buddhist custom.
The Precepts
The Community at Bodhinyanarama is bound by the monastic code of conduct, the basis of which is formalised into the following eight precepts:
1. Harmlessness: not intentionally taking the life of any living creature.
2. Trustworthiness: not taking anything which is not given.
3. Chastity: refraining from any sexual activity.
4. Right Speech: avoiding false, abusive or malicious speech.
5. Sobriety: not taking any intoxicating drink or drug.
6. Renunciation: not eating after midday.
7. Restraint: refraining fro attending games and shows, and from self-adornment. (Guests are asked to dress modestly, and not to play radios, musical tapes or instruments.)
8. Alertness: to refrain from overindulgence in sleep.
These are intended as a means of promoting harmony within the community and as a framework for contemplation. Guests are requested to undertake these precepts wholeheartedly for the insight they offer, and out of consideration for everyone else in the community.
Some Additional Considerations
1. Take special care to dress and act with modesty (seventh precept). In a place where chastity is observed, it is fitting to tone down the attractive qualities of personal appearance and behaviour. When in the company of a monk, nun or novice, keep in mind that their discipline prohibits physical contact with members of the opposite sex.
2. The property of the monastery has come from someone's generosity to the Sangha and guests are asked to treat it respectfully. Personal belongings should be kept tidy, particularly in spaces that are being used communally. If anything needs repair, replacing or refilling, please let the guest master know.
3. A monastery is a sanctuary from the usual worldly concerns, for those who have dedicated themselves to spiritual practice. As guests are sharing in this life as visitors, it is not appropriate to come and go without notice, or to engage in external business during their stay.
Donations to Bodhinyanarama
All teaching, accommodation and food at Bodhinyanarama are offered by the Sangha and its lay supporters, whose donations sustain the community and its work. Any contributions from guests may be placed in one of the donation boxes or by given directly to one of the lay committee members.

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(3) Observances Wat Pah Nanachat((c) See Endnote 124)
Clothing
Laymen are expected to wear white or light coloured clothing during their stay... Men bathe at the wells and are asked not to bathe naked, but to use a bathing cloth or swimming trunks and not to walk bare chested in public areas of the Wat.
Women are expected to wear all white or white blouses and black skirts...
General Conduct
Lay people should be aware that their conduct has an effect on the monastic environment and the other members of the community. Newcomers to the discipline of meditation generally find there is a surprising propensity for the self to demand things for personal, non-spiritual consumption. The cultural overlay of Thailand may be a further source of education. Be observant about the way things are done (and your attitudes to them) and be prepared to be told what to do by those who are more senior. By developing a sensitivity to what is appropriate conduct for a Thai forest monastery, visitors will find meditation practice develops more easily. Customs and conventions can have a profound spiritual significance if carried out mindfully and reflected on.
Speech
A minimum of talking is most conducive to a meditative environment. Whenever it is necessary to talk, be aware of the time and place as well as the content of what one says. During group meetings or at the meal there is usually no need to talk....
If you are in conversation keep to subjects which are useful, conducive to harmony and related to Dhamma practice. Avoid talk of politics, travel experiences, gossip and so forth, which often leads to arguments arising over the different views people hold.
If talking with senior monks, particularly the teacher, find a convenient time and place. Senior monks should be addressed as "Ajahn", others as "Tahn" and novices as "Nayn". These designations may or may not be followed by the Pali name of the individual. It is considered impolite to refer to ordained people by their Pali names without the appropriate honorific preceding it. [See page .]
Bodily Behaviour
The practice of mindfulness begins with the body. One's bodily actions, like one's speech, can be a source of disturbance to the community. Be observant of your behaviour and in general try and avoid calling attention to oneself in all the various ways one normally does. In a meditative environment, it is easy to be a source of distraction to others by banging kettles and doors, brushing too close to someone sitting in meditation, turning lights on and off and similar such actions. In the womens' facilities because people are living at closer quarters, playing cassettes at inappropriate times or volumes or being needlessly noisy can be even more frustrating to others.
Thai culture has an extensive etiquette and varied social customs —stemming largely from the monks' Code of Discipline— governing many aspects of physical behaviour, comprising a form of rules for proper body language. Most apparent are the gestures of respect used within a monastic community which help to open the heart, compose the mind and encourage a sense of kindness to others. These forms of courtesy help to develop a sensitivity towards the others to whom one relates on a daily basis and reduce the number of upsets arising through inconsiderate or aggressive behaviour.
A¤jalã
 This is a customary gesture used by Thais greeting others and also during the time one is speaking with a monk. Also known in Thai as the wai, it consists of raising the hands to the chest, palms together. The gesture is also used after offering something to or receiving something from an ordained person.
Bowing
The formal bow or grahp is another frequently used formality, being an excellent means of expressing respect for the Buddha, Dhamma, Sangha and for cultivating humility. Always bow before sitting down in the sala, Bot or Abbot's kuti. At the end of the meetings and when getting up either after the drink or from conversing with a monk, remember to bow three times.
To bow correctly bring the forehead all the way to the floor; have the elbows near the knees which should be about three inches apart. Bow slowly, being mindful of the body. As nearly as possible, the buttocks should be kept on the heels.
Relating to monks
In all postures try and be aware of where the body is in relation to a monk, especially if he is teaching Dhamma. When walking with a monk, it is customary for lay-people to walk a little behind, rather than immediately at his side. If a lay person has occasion to pass in front of a monk who is seated, it is polite to stoop.
If a monk is sitting, lay people should squat or sit down before addressing him; it is considered improper for lay people to be on a higher level when speaking with a monk. The Buddha instructed monks not to teach Dhamma to one who is unprepared or showing disrespect (allowances being made for those in poor health). When sitting and receiving a talk or conversing with a monk it is customary to sit in the pup-piap position —one leg bent in front, the other folded at the side. Sitting with the arms clasped around knees is improper. If sitting on a chair, sit attentively and erect.
Lay people should never sit on the asana (the raised seat for monks), on the same seat or mat as a monk or on a monk's robes. Do not sit on the pillows; it is considered disrespectful in Thailand where the head is held sacred.
It is inappropriate to lie down in the sala or sit with one's feet outstretched towards a Buddha image or monk.
Offering
According to monastic discipline all food, drink and medicine that a monk swallows or eats should first be formally offered. This emphasises the sense of giving —not merely the perfunctory handing over of an object— and the stronger and more conscious the action, the greater the benefit to the one offering.
The appropriate way to offer is to come within arm's reach of the monk with head lowered and either squatting or kneeling down. The action should be performed with both hands and afterwards the gesture of a¤jalã made. In Thailand, women do not give things directly to a monk as explained below.
Be careful not to touch food or medicines already offered without first informing a monk. ...
Food and Drink
... Eating should be done in silence and without a lot of scraping and banging of utensils or making unnecessary mess. One should not eat or drink standing up.
After midday, all members of the community should refrain from partaking in any food, including drinks containing milk, cereals, eggs, etc., or any kind of soup. There are certain 'medicines' allowable for consumption under the Vinaya. These include: fruit juice (uncooked and strained), soft drinks, butter and ghee, vegetable oil, honey and molasses (including sugar), tea, coffee, cocoa and herbal drinks. Such medicines are kept separately and offered as needed.
Women
Visitors should be aware of the proper mode of conduct for men and women within the setting of a forest monastery. They should be aware that some behaviour quite acceptable and normal enough for foreigners, is open to misinterpretation by the Thai community, whose standards naturally differ.
Complete segregation of the sexes is mandatory at all times. No men should enter the women's lodgings (or vice versa) without permission from the Abbot. If any contact is necessary, it should be done through the Abbot. Laymen should be careful in the kitchen not to get too close to laywomen, especially Thais.
Women are asked to be discreet and respectful when relating to monks, maintaining an even greater distance than with laymen. Take the Thai laywomen as examples in the proper way to behave with monks, such as perhaps kneeling down or squatting if conversing with a monk.
Women should be aware that it is an offence against his discipline if a monk touches a woman. If offering something to a monk either place it in his bowl or on his special receiving cloth —never directly into his hands. Male visitors should be aware that women with shaved heads may prefer not to hand anything to or receive anything directly from you. Put it down first and let the other person pick it up. Women must be careful entering rooms (such as the library) where a monk might be present; it is an offence for a monk to be alone with a woman in a closed room. ...

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(4) Advice for a Western Woman visiting a Thai Forest Monastery(125)
"You will find [at the forest monastery] that locker space is provided for your food (you must not take anything edible out of the kitchen area) there is usually a thermos of ice cubes, an ice box for perishables, there's a shower room and toilet. You wash your clothes by the well pump —not from the rain water tanks! There is no electricity so you will need a torch and plenty of candles and a good lighter or matches.
Ask for a place to put your valuables in a 'lock up'. You will be shown where you are to stay which is in a separate area of the monastery away from where the monks stay. However, please remember to dress suitably. The lay women on eight precepts wear white tops and black-wrap over skirts. If you are not going to keep the full eight it does not matter much what you wear as long as it is modest and the colours are muted.
You are provided with a mosquito net, blankets and pillow and pillow case. (But don't just take anything until you are sure it has been made available to you.) I also take anti-mosquito cream, antiseptic wipes, bandaids, tissue, cold water washing powder, soap, prickly heat powder. Torch (flash light), 'flip-flops', sleeping bag sheet, towel, and such like.
'Allowables' for the afternoon include: butterscotch, boiled sweets, dark chocolate, cheese, tea or coffee. ('Ovaltine', soy milk and coffee whiteners are not allowed in the afternoon at this Wat.)
It is customary to bow three times when one sees one's teachers and when one goes to the main hall (sala). If you notice what the Thais do you will soon get the hang of it. You will probably feel rather lost for the first 24 hours but then with patience and mindfulness everything should come together. The Thais —and especially one's teachers— are so good and generous to us that I feel it's important not to offend them.
In the afternoon (or evening) there is usually chance to listen to a Dhamma talk. In the morning one can prepare food to offer to the monks and to share with one's fellow meditators. The rest of the day one can work out a meditation routine which suits one.
Most people make a donation —there is no charge at all— before they leave. Tan Acharn (the abbot) doesn't like people to give more than they can afford. You must find out exactly how to do it.

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(5) Auckland Vihara Suggested Practice(126)
 Meeting the monk:
If you meet the monk in the shrine room or inside the house show your respect before you start your discussion. When you leave, please do the same.
 Behaviour During a Sermon:
When the monk is giving a sermon, please do not interrupt until question time. Avoid walking in and out of the room while the sermon is in progress.
 Subject matter:
Please do not engage in frivolous talk or shake hands with the monk. When speaking to the monk always be polite and never raise your voice.
 Sitting posture:
Do not point the feet or your back towards the monk. This is considered disrespectful.
 Offerings to the Monk:
Unless you are serving a meal out of a dish, always offer anything with both hands. Do not leave it in front of a monk without offering it.
 Providing Transport for the Monk:
Another person should always accompany a female person when going to see the monk. Even when providing transport for the monk a male person should always accompany a female person and the female person should not sit next to the monk.
 Having Meals after Dàna:
Lay people should not have their meals in front of the monk, and they should eat only after the monk has finished his meal.
 Discussions with the Monk:
Please do not disturb the monk when he is resting or meditating. Please remember that monks also need to rest and therefore do not engage in lengthy discussions. Preferably, ask for permission before your discussion.
 General behaviour in the Temple:
Please do not run about inside the temple. Parents should ensure that children behave well. The temple is a sacred place and at all times people should behave in a calm and quiet manner.
 Shoes, Caps, Hats:
Please do not wear shoes, caps or hats inside the shrine room. If you are talking to the monk please remove your hat.
 A Woman's View:
Standard of clothing for women: Clothes should not be too revealing such as shorts, miniskirt, low-cut or sleeveless garments.
Breast feeding is not appropriate in the presence of a monk or even in the same room.
It is not respectful to stretch out one's legs when seated, or point them in the direction of the monk or Buddha Statue.
People should not stand and talk to a monk when he is seated.
The norms of good manners should be observed, e.g. people should not talk and laugh loudly or make a noise when the monk is talking to someone in the same room.
Women should not have a private conversation with a monk or be alone in the same room without a male person being present.

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(6) A Thai Wat in Australia(127)
The Correct Things to do When Offering
General hints, observances
A bhikkhu / bhikkhus should be approached respectfully by the person offering dàna, who should always try to maintain a bodily position lower than that of the bhikkhu 
The person making the offering should be shoeless, modestly dressed (see note below) and should have a generally respectful demeanour towards the bhikkhu/s.
As with any greeting or approach to a bhikkhu, the person offering dàna should pay respects in the normal way by bowing three times —once for each of the Triple Gems.
If in doubt as to how to proceed beyond this basic approach other experienced members of the lay community or the bhikkhu s themselves are sure to be able to offer helpful directions.
As a general rule, one does not speak to a bhikkhu while offering dàna, unless the bhikkhu initiates some conversation.
To move with mindfulness and perhaps a bit more slowly than usual lessens the likelihood of mishaps.
Remember, the best way of learning and of keeping out of potentially embarrassing situations is to seek guidance from others present or, if there is a language barrier, to follow the example of those around you. But remember, too, that rules for men and women are very different so make sure you are following the example of a member of the same gender!
It is very important for everyone to always maintain a respectful distance from bhikkhus, the Sangha.
Offering food
The two most common situations for offering dàna in the form of food is when a line of bhikkhus is seated on a dias accepting dàna, or when a line of bhikkhus is on alms round (pindabat).
On the dais
In this situation the lay person should join the line of people making offerings, if there is one. If they are offering singly, then the procedure is basically the same.
The person making the offering should kneel once they are sufficiently close enough to the bhikkhu / bhikkhus, and signal their intent to offer food, drink, etc., by holding the item above them and to their forehead, at the same time mindfully recollecting the inner purpose for the offering.
The usual order is to offer plain cooked rice first, followed by other dishes. In this way a person may offer several times.
Food is placed with care into the alms bowl, beginning with the most senior bhikkhu and then proceeding down the line (usually from left to right when facing the seated line).
Once the offering has been made, the person should move back and away while still facing the bhikkhus and maintaining a low position. They might also, at this stage, repeat the respectful greeting of bowing three times.
It is very important to maintain a respectful distance and to place the food carefully and gently in the centre of the bowl without touching or interfering with it in any way.
After all the offerings have been made, the bhikkhus will chant and then have their meal.
When the bhikkhus have finished preparing their meal, it is usual for the most senior bhikkhu to lead the others in the blessing chanting for the lay community gathered. The most senior bhikkhu will then indicate that the lay people can now eat.
On alms round
When offering food to a line of monks making an alms round, it is important to be well prepared and ready in position somewhere along their round before they arrive so as not to delay them on their round.
Wait quietly, using the time to reflect on the meaning of the action about to take place.
The food should be kept well off the ground and shoes should be removed in readiness.
When the bhikkhus are seen to be approaching, the person should kneel and hold the food above their head in an offering position and reflect on the meaning of the action about to take place.
Once the bhikkhu stops, the person should stand and place a portion of the food into the open alms bowl that the bhikkhu will be silently offering while maintaining a position lower than that of the bhikkhu (this is most easily achieved by slightly bending the knees and/or bending from the waist). If the bowl is full, the lid of the bowl might be offered.
It is very important to maintain a respectful distance and to place the food carefully and gently in the centre of the bowl without touching or interfering with it in any way.
Kneel again and repeat the procedure until dàna has been offered to all the bhikkhus.
Once the line moves away, it might be appropriate to pay respects in the usual way.

Offering dàna other than food
Women
When a lay woman wishes to offer a bhikkhu some kind of dàna other than food, (e.g. books, beverages, medicines) the first step is approach the seated bhikkhu respectfully in the manner outlined above, pay respects, and let him know that you would like to make the offering, indicating exactly what the nature of the offering is. (In this way the bhikkhu can circumvent any inadvertent inappropriate offering.)
The bhikkhu will place down a piece of cloth and the person can then move forward and carefully place the offering on it.
The person should then pay respects again and move back a little. As with food offerings, shoes should be removed, and a low position in relation to the bhikkhu should be maintained.
Men
Lay men can follow the above procedure also, except that the item offered can be handed directly to the bhikkhu.
Ways of Relating to Monks
General
When visiting bhikkhus the lay person should pay respects to them in the usual way by bowing three times to each of the bhikkhus present in the order of their ordination if this is known.
The lay person can then assume a natural, comfortable seated position a little back and, if possible, lower than the bhikkhu. The only thing to remember here is that, if health permits, feet should be tucked under and away as it is not polite to point feet directly at a bhikkhu (or, in fact, any Thai person).
When addressing a bhikkhu it is usual to place both hands together at chest height when talking to him, or when he is replying —especially when he is expounding dhamma. Apart from indicating respect for the Sangha, this action helps with general mindfulness. If seeking advice or a dhamma explanation from a bhikkhu, a lay person would allow for spaciousness in a conversation, i.e. allow for pauses in the conversation before the bhikkhu speaks or replies.
Although tempting, it is a good idea not to get caught up in conversations about worldly matters with either the bhikkhus or with other lay people when sitting in the presence of the Sangha.
Lay women especially have to exercise great mindfulness when in the presence of the Sangha. If, for example, a lay woman finds herself left along in the presence of a bhikkhu, e.g. other friends have moved away or left, the most appropriate thing to do is to pay respects to that bhikkhu and leave.
When walking in the company of bhikkhus lay people should walk a little behind, but still within speaking distance.
A lay person would not stand too close to bhikkhu when he is standing. It is better to move a small distance away and assume a squatting position, if it feels comfortable to do this.
Paying respects
While not compulsory in any way, to pay respects in the traditional way to either a Buddha image or the Sangha is the most basic sign of a lay person's respect for the Triple Gem. It is also an excellent exercise in mindfulness. To learn the correct and most graceful way to execute this action, it is usually easiest to follow the example of an experienced lay person or the bhikkhu s themselves who also must pay respects to Buddha images or more senior bhikkhus.
Dress
When visiting a Wat or temple, it is good to be mindful about the type of clothing one wears —just as when going to a church or sacred building of any kind.
Dress for both men and women should be modest and unrevealing, and excessive ornamentation should be avoided.
Lay women especially should pay attention to what they wear, avoiding things like sheer fabrics; low necklines; sleeveless tops. Serious practitioners will consider not wearing perfume, make up or jewellery as well.

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Appendix G: Pavàraõà Invitations and their Origin Stories(128)

(i) The son of a great merchant was so inspired by Ven. Upananda's Dhamma talk that he made an invitation of the four requisites, whereupon Ven. Upananda asked for one of the pieces of cloth that the lay man was actually wearing. The lay man replied that he would bring another cloth from home because it was not proper for him to walk around with only one cloth. But Ven. Upananda became very insistent and so he had to give up the cloth. People criticised the monks for being greedy and not asking for what was reasonable. The rule that resulted can be summarised:
"Asking for and receiving robe-material from an unrelated lay person, except when one's robes have been stolen or destroyed, is [an offence of Confession with Forfeiture.]" (Nissaggiya Pàcittiya 6; BMCp189)
(ii) If he does beg and obtain the robe, he must forfeit it to another bhikkhu and confess the offence. When the circumstances are such that he is allowed to ask for a robe, he should not ask for more than two robes. This is covered by the next Rule:
"Asking for and receiving excess robe-material from unrelated lay people when one's robes have been stolen or destroyed is [an offence of Confession with Forfeiture.]" (Summarised Nissaggiya Pàcittiya 7; BMCp192)
(iii) The Eighth Rule (Nissaggiya Pàcittiya 8) arose because a bhikkhu overheard one of Ven. Upananda's supporters saying that he intended to give Ven. Upananda a robe. The bhikkhu went and told Ven. Upananda, whereupon Ven. Upananda visited (without invitation) the 'donor' and specified exactly which kind of robe he wanted. The lay supporter commented, "these monks are insatiable and not easily contented. How can he, without having first been invited by me, make stipulations about a robe?".
"When a lay person who is not a relative is planning to get a robe for one, but has yet to ask one what kind of robe one wants: Receiving the robe after making a request that would raise its cost is [an offence of Confession with Forfeiture.]" (Summary: Nis. Pàc. 8; BMCp195))
It is no offence for the bhikkhu to request them to reduce the amount they were planning to spend.
(iv) The twenty-sixth Confession with Forfeiture Rule:
"If a bhikkhu asks for thread from a lay person who is not a relative and who has not given [invitation] pavàraõà and then has it woven into robe material by weavers, it is [an offence of Confession with Forfeiture.]" (Nis. Pàc. 26; Nvp12)
(v) The twenty-seventh Confession with Forfeiture Rule:
"If a lay person, who is not a relative and who has not given [invitation] pavàraõà, should order weavers to make up some material for a robe for the bhikkhu, if then the bhikkhu instructs the weavers saying that if they make it better than they otherwise would have done he will give them some reward, it is [an offence of Confession with Forfeiture.]" (Nis. Pàc. 27; Nvp12)
 Although these Rules are about robe-material, conscientious bhikkhus would regard other requisites in the same spirit.

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Appendix H: Recollection of the Bhikkhu's Requisites

"Properly considering the robe, I use it: simply to ward off cold, to ward off heat, to ward off the touch of flies,  mosquitoes, simply for the purpose of covering the parts of the body which cause shame. 
"Properly considering almsfood, I use it: not playfully, nor for intoxication, nor for putting on weight, nor for  beautification; but simply for the survival and continuance of this body, for ending its afflictions, for the support of the chaste life, (thinking) I will destroy old feelings (of hunger) and not create new feelings (from overeating).  Thus I will maintain myself, be blameless, and live in comfort.
"Properly considering the lodging, I use it: simply to ward off cold, to ward off heat, to ward off the touch of flies, mosquitoes, wind, sun and reptiles; simply for protection from the inclemencies of weather and for the enjoyment of seclusion.
"Properly considering medicinal requisites for curing the sick, I use them: simply to ward off any pains of illness that have arisen, and for the maximum freedom from disease."

[trans. Bhikkhu Thanissaro, pages 46–47 of Ordination Procedure]

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Glossary

Abhi¤¤à: Supernormal Powers; Higher Knowledges.
âcariya: teacher. The senior monk who 'gives' the candidate bhikkhu the precepts. The senior monk on whom a young bhikkhu depends for instruction. (see nissaya.)
Adhikaraõasamatha: The last seven 'rules' of the Pàtimokkha's 227 rules which list the ways to settle disputes in the Saïgha.
alajjã: shameless; referring to monks who do not care about keeping the Rule.
Anagarika: Homeless One; in some places a 'postulant' wearing white robes and keeping 8 Precepts (See Appendix A)
Aniyata: The section of rules that are undetermined or indefinite, and require Community inquiry.
âpatti: offence; the act —either physically or verbally— of breaking any of the ordinances or rules set down by the Buddha.
A¤jalã: showing respect by raising both hands, palms together, up towards the chest or face.
Bhante: general term of address for a bhikkhu, meaning "Ven. Sir".
Bhikkhu: a male mendicant formally accepted into the Bhikkhu Sangha and training under the Pàñimokkha Rule.
Bhikkhunã: a female mendicant equivalent to bhikkhu, but the ordination lineage has been lost in the Theravàda.
Brahmacariya: the Holy Life of celibacy and strict chastity found in the Eight, Ten and Bhikkhu's Precepts.
Cetiya or chedi (Thai): bell-shaped stupa or reliquary with a tapering spire, also pagoda
Dàna: giving, generosity, alms-giving.
Dasasãla mata: ordained Buddhist nuns living the Brahmacariya based on the Ten Precepts.
Defeat: see pàràjika
Devadatta, Ven. Devadatta: a bhikkhu in the time of the Buddha who tried to cause a schism in the Saõgha.
Dhamma: the Teachings and Way followed by the Buddha, the Truth, the Law, etc.
Dhutaïga (Pàli); Tudong (Thai): Often refers to the forest monk's way of life, his wandering through forests and living at the foot of trees. It more literally refers to the 'austere practices' which are 'means of shaking off or removing defilement'. Traditionally (Vism. 59-83) there are thirteen of these:
wearing refuse-rag robes; possessing only the three robes; eating only alms food; on alms round going from house to house; eating only one meal a day; eating only from one's alms bowl; refusing food that comes late; forest dweller's practice; living at the roots of trees; open-air dweller's practice; charnel-ground dweller's practice; any-bed user's practice; sitter's practice (of not lying down).
Dukkaña: wrong doing, the lightest offence.
Going Forth: See Ordination; Upasampadà; Pabbajà.
Great Standards (Mahàpadesa): to use as guidelines in deciding if novel or uncertain circumstances accord with  the Dhamma and Vinaya.
Grahp: (Thai) bowing from the kneeling position to show high respect. 
'Group-of-six monks': frequently appearing in the original setting down of a rule as the first perpetrators.
Invitation: See Pavàraõà.
Jàtaråpa-rajata: gold and silver; money.
Kañhina: The annual robes-giving ceremony, offered sometime during the month following the Rains Retreat.
Kappiya: making something allowable for a monk.
Kuñi: a monk's hut or shelter.
Meõóaka Allowance: for a steward to handle funds left by absent donors.
Nàvaka: or 'new monk'; for his first five years.
Nibbàna: the extinction of the fires of greed, of hatred and of ignorance; the extinction of all defilements; Deliverance from all suffering; the Unconditioned.
Nikàya: a sect or school.
Nissaggiya Pàcittiya (Nis. Pàc.): an offence requiring forfeiture of some disallowed article together with 'confession' to another bhikkhu or bhikkhus.
Nissaya: taking 'dependence' on one's Preceptor or Teacher. (see Upajjhàya; âcariya)
Ordination: 'Going Forth' from the home life to the life of a bhikkhu; Upasampadà  is the assembled monk's formal full acceptance of a candidate-bhikkhu into the Community. Pabbajà is the first part of the 'Ordination Procedure' which gives the new novice or Sàmaõera his robes and the Ten Precepts.
Pabbajà: See Ordination.
Pàcittiya (Pàc.): 'Confession'; 92 Offences that can be cleared by formal 'confession' to another bhikkhu.
Pàli: the ancient Indian language of the Theravàda Canon.
Pàñimokkha Rule: The fundamental 227 rules observed by a bhikkhu. It is recited by a single monk with the whole Community (of monks) present, every lunar fortnight.
Pàràjika (Pàr.): Defeat; The four heaviest, incurable offences that automatically and irrevocably end the Bhikkhu-life. 
Pàtidesaniya: 4 Offences 'to be acknowledged'.
Pavàraõà: Invitation; (i) by a donor to supply requisites to a particular bhikkhu; (ii) a ceremony for the Community of bhikkhus held at the end of the Rains Retreat.
Piõóapàta:  food received in the alms-bowl (of a bhikkhu); alms-gathering; to go on an almsround.
Precepts: See Appendix A. 
Rains Retreat; Vassa (Pàli): is the annual three month period during the Monsoon Season, from the full moon (usually) of July to the full moon (usually) of October, when all bhikkhus are required to stay in one place. It also is the measure of years for a Buddhist monk.
Requisites (Parikkhàra): of a bhikkhu are traditionally: 3 robes, an alms bowl, a belt, a razor, a needle, and a water-filter.
Saïghàdisesa: a very serious offence; to resolve it requires formal meetings of the Community and probation of the offending bhikkhu.
Sàmaõera; novice: See Ordination. 
Sekhiya: 75 Training Rules concerned with various aspects of etiquette in dressing, public behaviour, accepting and eating alms food, teaching Dhamma, etc.
Sãma: A specially designated area for formal meetings of the Community of monks. 
Steward; Veyyàvaccakara: acts on behalf of donors to supply allowable items to a particular bhikkhu.
Sugata-span: a measure based on the length of the Buddha's cubit or forearm. 
Thera: Elder, a bhikkhu for more than ten years.
Theravàda: 'Doctrine of the Elders', is the name of the oldest form of the Buddha's teachings with texts in the Pàli language.
Tudong (Thai): See Dhutaïga.
Upajjhàya: Preceptor. The senior monk who 'sponsors' the candidate-bhikkhu's 'ordination', and on whom the new bhikkhu will always depend for instruction. (see âcariya; nissaya.)
Uposatha: for bhikkhus this is the fortnightly Observance Day when the Pàñimokkha Rule is recited.
Vandanà: paying respect or reverence.
Vassa: See Rains Retreat.
Veyyàvaccakara: See Steward.
Vinaya: the bhikkhu's Discipline which include the core 227 Pàñimokkha rules together with many other ordinances for the right living and harmony of the Community of monks.

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Bibliography

The Age of Vinaya, A Historical Cultural Study, G.S.P. Misra, Munshiram Manoharlal, 1972. 
Burmese Buddhist Culture, The Initiation of Novicehood and the Ordination of Monkhood, by Sao Htun Hmat Win, Department of Religious Affairs, Rangoon, Burma, 1986
The Book of Chants, A compilation, (being the romanized edition of the Royal Thai Chanting Book), Mahamakut Rajavidyalaya Press, Phra Sumeru Road, Bangkok 10200, 2518/1975
The Book of the Discipline, tr. I.B. Horner, in 6 volumes, Pali Text Society, 1970-86, 73 Lime Walk, Headington, Oxford OX3 7AD, England. [This is the (almost) complete English translation of the original Pàli texts.]
*The Buddhist Monastic Code, The Patimokkha Training Rules, translated and explained by Thanissaro Bhikkhu (Geoffrey DeGraff),   The Abbot, Metta Forest Monastery, PO Box 1409, Valley Center, CA 92082, U.S.A. [An excellent reference book, especially for bhikkhus. The present work relies on it a great deal.] (Published for free Distribution, also available on Buddhist BBSs.)
Buddhist Monastic Discipline, Jotiya Dhirasekera, Ministry of Higher Education Research Publication Series, 1982, Sri Lanka.
Buddhist Monastic Discipline: The Sanskrit Pràtimoksa Såtras of the Mahàsàüghikas and Målasarvàstivàdins, by Charles S. Premish, The Pennsylvania State University Press, 1975, ISBN 0-271-01171-8. [Contains two other later Pàtimokkha versions and some background and a major bibliography.]
The Buddhist Monk's Discipline, Bhikkhu Khantipalo, Wheel Publication #130/131, Buddhist Publication Society, Kandy, Sri Lanka, 1969.
Buddhist Monastic Life —according to the texts of the Theravada tradition, Mohan Wijayaratana, Cambridge University Press 1990, ISBN 0 -521 -36428 -0.
Daily Buddhist Devotions, Ven. K Sri Dhammananda, Buddhist Missionary Society, 123, Jalan Berhala, Off Jalan Tun Sambanthan, 50470 Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia, ISBN: 967-9920-54-2 1991
The Entrance to the Vinaya, Vinayamukha, in 3 vols, Ven. Somdet (Phra Maha Samana Chao Krom Phraya) Vajiranyanavarorasa, Mahamakut Rajavidyalaya Press, Bangkok, 1969-83. [Standard Thai Vinaya Commentary for bhikkhus, translated into English.]
Forest Monks and the Nation-State, An Anthropological and Historical Study in Northeastern Thailand, J.L. Taylor,  ISEAS 1993, ISBN 981-3016-49-3. [A knowledgeable, if technical study, showing the interaction between a group of forest monks and society at large.]
A Guide to Buddhist Monasteries and Meditation Centres in Thailand, by Bill Weir, Third Edition, 1991, World Fellowship of Buddhists, 33 Sukhumvit Road, Bangkok 10110, Thailand. [Also contains information on the etiquette and practicalities of staying in Thai monasteries.]
*Introduction to the Patimokkha Rules, translated and explained by Thanissaro Bhikkhu (see The Buddhist Monastic Code above for details.) (Published for free Distribution, also available on Buddhist BBSs.) [See Appendix C.]
A Lay Buddhist's Guide to the Monks' Code of Conduct, Serpentine Buddhist Monastery, Lot 1 Kingsbury Drive, Serpentine, WA 6205, Australia. (Also Bodhinyanarama Monastery, Wellington, New Zealand.) (Pamphlet)
Observances, Wat Pah Nanachat, Ban Bung Wai, Ubon Ratchathani, Thailand. (Pamphlet)
Maha Pirit Pota, The Great Book of Protections (Catubhàõavàrapàli), by Lionel Lokuliyana, Published for free distribution by Mrs. H. Gunasekera Trust, 45 Alfred House Gardens, Colombo 3, Sri Lanka. [This offers a scholarly and critical history of Paritta Chanting according to the Sri Lankan style, and includes the full text in both Pali and English translation.]
The Middle Length Discourses of the Buddha, translated by Bhikkhu Ñàõamoli and Bhikkhu Bodhi, Wisdom Publications, 1995. ISBN 0-86171-072-X [A superb translation from the original Pàli offering many authentic views of the ancient life of bhikkhus.]
The Mirror of the Dhamma, A Manual of Buddhist Chanting and Devotional Texts, by Narada Thera and Bhikkhu Kassapa, Revised by Bhikkhu Khantipalo, Wheel Publication No.54 A/B, BPS, Kandy, Sri Lanka, 1980.
Navakovàda. Instructions for Newly-ordained Bhikkhus and Sàmaneras, compiled by Ven. Somdet (Phra Mahà Samana Chao Krom Phraya) Vajiranyanavarorasa, Mahamakut Rajavidyalaya Press, Phra Sumeru Road, Bangkok 10200, 1990. Translated from the Thai original. [A good though somewhat condensed guide to the Pàtimokkha Rule, suitable for lay people.]
Ordination Procedure and the Preliminary duties of a New Bhikkhu, by Ven. Somdet (Phra Mahà Samana Chao Krom Phraya) Vajiranyanavarorasa, Mahamakut Rajavidyalaya Press, Phra Sumeru Road, Bangkok 10200, Second Edition, 1989.
Pali Chanting —with translations, Mahamakut Rajavidyalaya Press, Phra Sumeru Road, Bangkok 10200, 1974 
The Patimokkha, trans. by Ven. Nyanamoli Thera, Mahamakut Rajavidyalaya Press, Bangkok, 1966; Second Edition 1969.
Puja —Thai Traditional Way, Dhammasanti, Sungai Puyu Chanting Group, Butterworth, Penang, Malaysia. (c/o Wat Bodhicharoentham?). [This offers both the Pali and English translation of most chants/parittas used in Thailand. Also the 'ordination' procedure etc., for monks.]
Vinaya in Theravada Temples in the United States, Journal of Buddhist Ethics, Volume 1: 1994: Discussion Article, by Paul David Numrich.

•	Just to show how all the Buddhist Groups still keep the Vinaya  texts in their libraries:
Advice from Buddha Shakyamuni concerning a Monk's Discipline, An Abridged Exposition of the Bhikshu's Precepts, by Tenzin Gyatso, translated by Tsepak Rigzin and Glen H. Mullin, Library of Tibetan Works and Archives, Dharamsala, 1982.
The Bhikshu Pratimoksha Precepts, from The Four-Part Vinaya of the Dharmagupta School, translated by The Buddhist Text Translation Society, Tathagata Monastery, City of Ten Thousand Buddhas, Talmage, California, 95481-0217, U.S.A.

* * * * * *

End Notes [**Page numbers are not accurate in this RTF version.**]

1. See Appendix A.
2.  See Uposatha, page .
3. Buddhist monks of the Theravàda lineage of mainly Southeast Asia and Sri Lanka.
4. "Buddhism is the world-renouncing religion par excellence and the source, one suspects, of all monasticism as it developed in other religions based on quite different 'theological' foundations, notably Christianity and Islam." from Oxford professor R.C. Zaehner's Foreword to 'The Origin and The Early Development of Buddhist Monachism'.
5. But see Appendix C.
6. See Glossary.
7. See Appendix A.
8. Sometimes this is on the weekly observance days, sometimes when spending longer periods at a monastery. In some places this forms a preliminary stage to becoming a bhikkhu. For example, at some monasteries in England a candidate usually has to live under Eight Precepts and wear white as an anagarika (homeless one) before he will be considered for ordination.
9. An explanation of the original circumstances that led to the formulation of a rule is usually included in the scriptural text as an introduction to that rule.
When a bhikkhu takes up the training rules he may find that past habits and tendencies cause problems —especially in a non-supportive environment. At such times lay people who know about the rules can offer extra support. (Of course, staying within a suitable environment will simplify this, which is a major reason for some of the rules.) Therefore it is important to remember that the bhikkhu never practises in isolation and always needs the support and understanding of lay Buddhists. There is the need for mutual support and encouragement between the lay and bhikkhu communities. Knowing something of the rules should enable the lay person to appreciate this.
10. Samantapàsàdikà I, 102; See Vinaya in Theravada Temples in the United States.
11. In S.E. Asia it also serves an important social function for (ideally) every male becomes a novice or bhikkhu sometime during his life. For an interesting description of this see Burmese Buddhist Culture.
12. The 'Going-forth into the Homeless Life' is sometimes translated by the English word 'ordination', however, as there is no supernatural-being to perform the ordination, it is a misnomer —although it can be an easy shorthand.
13. "... even though he has knowledge of Dhamma and Vinaya, yet it is not proper if he does not take [dependence] nissaya and live under the control of his [preceptor] or [teacher]. For him not to live in this way is prohibited by the Buddha." (VMIIp52)
14. "He is one who has faith, shame, fear of evil, effort, and mindfulness; He is complete with moral precepts, good conduct, right view, deep learning and wisdom; He knows what is [an offence], what is not [an offence], what is a light [offence], what is a heavy [offence], and he has memorized correctly the Pàñimokkha without any mistakes; He has five or more Rains." (VMIIp53)
15. "He himself can nurse, or order to nurse, a sick [dependent monk]. He can put an end to, or seek another to put an end to, passion arisen in a [dependent monk] who is dissatisfied with the [holy life of a monk]. He can relieve boredom with the Dhamma-path which has arisen for a [dependent monk], or get another to do so. He knows [offenses] and the ways out of [offenses]; He can train a [dependent monk] in the highest training in proper conduct and give advice to them on the principal training in the pure life, the Buddha-law which is essential for the [holy life]. He can give progressive advice in the Dhamma and Vinaya. He can release a [dependent monk] from the wrong view by way of Dhamma; He has ten Rains or more than that." (VMIIp53) 
"It seems that these principles are not for the bhikkhu to consider for himself. It is for the consideration of his [preceptor] or teacher or of an Elder who is his senior, whether it is proper or not for a bhikkhu who lives with them to be released and to stay alone, and whether a bhikkhu who is released from [dependence] is able to be a [leader of an assembly of monks]." (VMIIp45–54)
16. except that he does not have the double thickness outer robe.
17. The common honorifics in (roughly) ascending order of age and seniority are: Tan, Phra, Luang Pee, Kruba, Ajahn, Tan Ajahn, Luang Por, Luang Poo. The Thai titles of ascending ecclesiastical rank are: Phra Khru, Chow Khun, Somdet, and Somdet Phra Sangha Raht (or the Supreme Patriarch). (Also see pages  and .)
18.  In previous times people were less likely to travel around during the monsoon season —because of the bad roads and danger of crop damage— and so the bhikkhus likewise suspended their mendicant wanderings. A bhikkhu must determine at the beginning of this period to be resident at dawn every day in that place for the whole three month period. There are exceptional circumstances when he may be allowed to be away but even then he must return within seven days. This special leave of absence (sattàha) can only be taken in order to: visit or nurse ill Dhamma-friends and parents; support fellow bhikkhus who are thinking of disrobing; to attend to some essential duty of the Community; to support faithful lay devotees who make an invitation. (VMIIp84; 89–90)
19. In the countries of SE Asia it is the custom for every man to become a bhikkhu for at least a short period which enables him (and his family) to join in and appreciate what the monk's life is all about.
20. Equivalent to the fifteenth day of the waxing moon, the fifteenth or fourteenth day of the waning moon, and the eighth day of the waxing and waning moons. Until recently, villagers in Buddhist countries still used this calendar in everyday speech, e.g. they would not say, "today is Monday" but "the third day of the waxing moon".
21. "Thus the ritualized recitation of the [Pàñimokkha] becomes intensely meaningful. It seems to become the formal embodiment of a tradition, by this time long in practice, of expecting and demanding the highest cultivation of an ethical life by practitioners of Buddhism. In so doing, the ritualization of the [Pàñimokkha] reveals not that ethics and morality were overlooked, but rather that they continued as strongly as ever, simply recast into the formalistic mould that the Buddhist monastic life had adopted. Considered in this perspective, [Pàñimokkha] is not just monastic "glue" holding the sangha [community] together but the common ground on which the internally enforced ethical life is manifested externally in the community." (Buddhist Monastic Discipline p27)
22. See Appendices B and C. Note that anyone guilty of an offence of Defeat is automatically no longer a bhikkhu and therefore cannot take part in the Pàñimokkha recitation.
23. "Another drawback resulting from the need for precision in rules is that the more precisely a rule is defined to suit a particular time and place, the less well it may fit in other times and places. The compilers of the Canon, in order to make up for this weakness, thus provided the origin stories and precedents to show the type of situation the rule was intended to prevent, providing principles and models that indicate the spirit of the rule and aid in applying it to different contexts." (BMCp15–18)
24. "There are six reasons why a bhikkhu commits an offence: lack of shame; he does not know that it is an offence; he is doubtful but still goes and does it; he thinks that he ought to do something when in fact he ought not; he thinks that he ought not to do something when in fact he ought to do it; he does something without thinking (absentmindedly)." (Nvp4)
25. "Although the Vibhaïga and Khandhakas [of the original Pàli texts] cover an enormous number of cases, they do not, of course, cover every possible contingency in the world; and from what we have seen of the way in which the Buddha formulated the rules —dealing with cases as they arose— there is reason to doubt that he himself wanted them to form an airtight system. As for cases that did not arise during his lifetime, he established ... the Great Standards... —for judging cases not mentioned in the rules ... " (BMCp26)
26. See Vinaya in Theravada Temples in the United States for a modern 'sociological' discussion of this point; while VMIp21-22 mentions the tendency to find ways around rules.
27. "Obviously the main thrust of these guidelines is to prevent an innocent bhikkhu from being unfairly penalized. As for the opposite case —a guilty bhikkhu getting away with no penalty— we should remember that the laws of kamma guarantee that in the long run he is not getting away with anything at all. " (BMCp160)
28. See Appendices B and C.
29. e.g. Emperor Asoka's building of hospitals and sanctuaries for animals.
30. asubha kammaññhàna, see the Foundations of Mindfulness Sutta, M10
31. For a discussion of the issues involved in caring for the terminally ill, see BMCp72–78.
32. If he suspects it was killed to provide him with food he is not allowed to eat it. See page .
33. Other examples of the ancient awareness of 'not polluting the environment' and hygiene are the two Sekhiya Training rules. These forbid a bhikkhu from defecating, urinating or spitting into water or onto green vegetation. (Sekhiya 74, 75)
34. It is, however, allowable for monks to hint to lay people or novices about what needs doing as long as the words or gestures fall short of a command. When bhikkhus need paths to be cleared, necessary work done on the ground, fire-breaks made, etc., any lay attendant wanting to help should listen out for hints and indications: 'A post hole dug over there would be useful'; 'make this ground allowable', etc. What is needed can then be clarified.
35. Dukkaña, this is one of the most minor offenses and can be cleared by simple confession.
36. This becomes important when offering certain fruits, bean-sprouts, etc., to bhikkhus in some communities. (See Kappiya on page .)
37. "Household life is crowded and dusty; life gone forth is wide open..." (M.i.179; Middle Length Discourses  of the Buddha, page 272)
38. In fact, gross sexual misconduct is already part of the Five Precepts. The Eight and Ten Precepts immediately refine this and then the Vinaya handles it with even greater subtlety.
39. Hence his attitude to shaking hands. And why in Thailand a receiving cloth is used to receive offerings from women. (See page .)
40. In full: "Should any bhikkhu, overcome by lust, with altered mind, speak in the presence of a woman in praise of ministering to his own sensuality thus: "This, sister, is the highest ministration, that of ministering to a virtuous, fine-natured follower of the celibate life such as myself with this act" —alluding to sexual intercourse— it entails initial and subsequent meetings of the Community." (Saïgh. 4; BMCp100)
41. In full: "Should any bhikkhu engage in conveying a man's intentions to a woman or a woman's intentions to a man, proposing marriage or paramourage —even if only for a momentary liaison— it entails initial and subsequent meetings of the Community." (Saïgh. 5; BMCp117)
42. These rules also demonstrate the role of lay criticism —here specifically female—in establishing the original rule. Avoiding the suspicions of sceptical outsiders is highlighted, which is probably even more necessary in modern society with its tabloid newspapers, etc.
43. trustworthy is defined as one who is at least a 'Stream-enterer'. However, even if the critic is an 'ordinary person' the Community may investigate the case if it sees fit.
44. According to the Commentary, if there are two women then it does not break this rule. However the rule about talking together would still apply. (See (vi))
45. "A monk counselling a female disciple alone invites excessive intimacy and encourages rumour. If one is to speak more than a few sentences to a woman, one should always try to call another monk, novice or layman to come within hearing." (AB)
46. Perhaps intimate and private telephone conversations should now also be included here. Some communities require that another monk be privy to what is going on, whether phone conversations or over-familiarity in letter writing,  
47. The fifth Confession Rule is similar to the sixth, however it is concerned with men. It arose when some newly 'ordained' bhikkhus lay down and slept in the hall in the presence of lay people, "careless, thoughtless, naked, mumbling, snoring". The lay people criticised them so the Buddha forbade monks to sleep under the same roof as lay people. But later he found that the novice Rahula was having to sleep in an outside toilet because there was otherwise no room, so he relaxed the rule to allow for a temporary stay together.
Rule Summary: "Lying down at the same time, in the same lodging, with a novice or layman for more than three nights running is [an offence of Confession.]" (Pàc. 5; BMCp276)
48. Also see Wrong Livelihood, page .
49. See Appendix H
50. "...a bhikkhu should wish to use things which are plain and ordinary and not use the good things which are popular at the time and which can be called luxurious. ...The plain and fine requisites should be used according to the time, but those which are made by or for himself should not aim at beauty, but should aim at usefulness or strength so that they can be used for a long time. When a bhikkhu understands this matter, he should practise in the middle way which is suitable for the time and place." (VMIIp36–41)
"Bhikkhus who seek a living without violating the traditions of bhikkhus gain offerings in the right way. They should know how to make use of these offering properly and not do anything with them which will make the donor's faith decline." (VMIIp130)
51. In times of great need a bhikkhu is allowed to beg for his basic requisites, for example, if his robes are stolen he may ask any lay person for one replacement robe.
52. pavàraõà should not to be confused with the last day of the Rains Retreat, which is also called Pavàraõà Day.
53. In modern Thailand, a person can offer support by giving a printed slip which may read: "I invite you with the Four Requisites equal in amount to the value of 'x-amount' which has been handed over already to the steward. As you have need of it, please request it from the steward."
54. "...things which are given by donors to a bhikkhu to be his own, or a bhikkhu has [properly acquired] as his personal possessions. Even things which the sangha has distributed, their ownership is given to a bhikkhu and they are personal things. A bhikkhu who is the owner of such things has the right to give them up, or to give them away, just as he likes. The point here is that one should not cause the faith of the donor to decline." (VMIIp149) 
However, disposal or appropriation of anything owned by the Community, or belonging to the monastery, is strictly controlled.
55. When a bhikkhu actually steals something it is an offence of Defeat. See page .
56. See Appendix H
57. Nowadays only a few forest monks will wear such rag-robes.
58. The Sekhiya Training Rules require that a bhikkhu be properly covered from the neck to the knees. 
59. There is some doubt as to the maximum size allowed. (See BMCp528) Also, cloth now is not such a luxury and modern man seems to be physically bigger so robes can now be found as large as 3 x 2 metres for the outer robes, 2.5 x 1 metre for the skirt robe. 
60. Though five panels are shown here, there can be seven, nine, or more depending on the size of the cloth.
61. The traditional 'discarded cloth' would be thoroughly washed and possibly bleached before it could be dyed. Nowadays such robes are rare.
62. In Thailand this is considered to be "yellow mixed with much red or the ochre yellow which is the colour obtained from the heart-wood of the Jack-fruit tree". (VMIIp15–17)
63. For example, in Thailand the double-thickness outer robe is often 'ceremonially' folded over the left shoulder; in Burma the upper robe reaches high up the neck. And the method of wearing and rolling the robe-edges will differ from community to community.
64. e.g. a bathing cloth, handkerchief, towel, etc. In Thailand, it has become accepted practice for a monk always to wear a 'shoulder cloth' (angsa) under his robe; while in western countries with harsh winters an extra 'under-robe' is often worn for added warmth.
65. The bhikkhu may also take on —they are voluntary— the special dhutanga (tudong in Thai) practices. These are more usually seen among forest monks and are distinctive of their way of practice. For example, they always try to go on alms round; they eat the collected food out of their alms bowl in one sitting; and may refuse late-come food. (Also see the Glossary.)
66. "This rule teaches bhikkhus to show their appreciation of the donors, for they should not look down on them, while they should show their appreciation of the food given to them. They should not behave in such a way (as to suggest that) they are accepting it to play with it or throw it away later." (VMIp210)
67. The Tudong or wandering forest bhikkhu will usually have a large sized alms bowl for this also serves as the 'suitcase' for his few requisites.
68. There is a daily 'Recollection' about this that urges the bhikkhu to reflect on why he is eating alms food: "not for fun, not for intoxication, not for fattening, not for beautification, but only for the maintenance of the body, for the continuance of the Holy Life ..." See Appendix H for the other Recollections.
69. Nowadays, bhikkhus often seem to use plates and cutlery, however, forest bhikkhus will usually keep to the old traditions —which is also part of the dhutanga practices.
70. When different kinds of 'edibles' are mixed their category will usually change to that with the shortest life-span. For example, ginger can be used as a herbal 'lifetime' medicine for stomach ailments. However, grated-ginger that has been used for food preparation is classed as 'food' and therefore should not be kept overnight or used as a medicine. Likewise, if honey is used as a solvent or base for herbal medicines, because the honey has a seven-day limit, that lifetime medicine becomes a seven-day medicine. This is another reason why bhikkhus may be careful about the ingredients of medicines that are offered.
71. See the Sãlavagga of the Dãgha Nikàya.
72. Noon or midday is when the sun is at its zenith or highest elevation in the sky, midway between sunrise and sunset (on a plain) and not necessarily 12:00 hours clock time, which may change depending on the season. However, many communities will keep to twelve noon as the set time limit.
73. He will therefore often check the ingredients of 'medicines' to make sure that they do not also contain any foodstuffs. When offering such 'medicines' the donor should try to be aware of what the bhikkhu considers allowable and what will cause him to fall into offence.
74. However, there is "an allowance in the Mahàvagga (I.14.7) for a bhikkhu who has taken a purgative to take strained meat broth, strained rice broth, or strained green gram (mung bean) broth at any time of the day. Using the Great Standards, we may say that a bhikkhu who has a similar illness or worse may take these broths at any time; and some have argued that other bean broths —such as soybean milk— would fit under the category of green gram broth as well. However, unlike the case with the five tonics, mere hunger or fatigue would not seem to count as sufficient reasons for taking any of these substances in the 'wrong time.' ...some have argued, using the Great Standards, that the special allowance for this substance [—lonasoviraka, which is not now made—] should extend to miso as well, but this is a controversial point." (BMCp363–4)
75. Note that the Buddha otherwise allowed and praised living in a charnel ground and wearing rag-robes for these are two of the dhutanga practices.
76. Water and tooth-cleaning sticks are excepted in the rule. Some Communities also count toothpaste under this exception, some consider it more a medicine and therefore require it to be properly offered. Some Communities require ice, hot water, and bottled water to be also offered —some do not.
77. Bhikkhus in Thailand never receive food from women directly into their hands. It is always offered into their bowl or onto a 'receiving-cloth'. This practice does not appear directly in the texts.  However, it probably functions as extra-assurance for the monks concerning the very serious rule about touching women (See Saïghàdisesa 2, page ). Many Thai eight-precept nuns follow a reciprocal tradition when receiving anything from a man. In Sri Lanka and Burma monks generally will accept offerings from women directly into their hands.
78. In many communities this has led to the food having to be literally lifted into the monk's hands or onto his receiving cloth. The Commentary allows it to be slid along the floor or table into the monk's hands.
79. This has to be balanced with the Sekhiya Training rule where it is the monk who should "be appreciative and attentive when receiving food". According to the Commentaries, the lay donor should at least tilt his head slightly. In some monasteries food is not considered given if a lay person offers it to a barefooted bhikkhu while wearing shoes or sandals. In the West, this gesture 'of respect' may be taken according to local custom. (See BMCp375).
80. The Commentary allows a lay person or novice to collect anything remaining from the bhikkhu's meal and keep it in the approved storeroom. As long as the bhikkhu has completely abandoned all possession of that food, a lay person or novice may, on their own initiative, re-offer it the following day and he may accept and eat the food. However, many Communities ignore this allowance because of concern that it will be abused and will not receive food that has previously been offered.
81. Snacks are not included in this rule, however the bhikkhu should not overeat so that it spoils his appetite. 
82. See Glossary.
83. sickness; the 'robe time'; the time for making up robes; going on a long journey; going by boat; when there are many going on [alms round] and there is not enough to eat; when the food is being given by [recluses].
84. See page .
85. He should also not eat raw or undercooked meat, or the flesh of elephants, horses, dogs, snakes, lions, tigers, leopards, bears, hyenas or, of course, human flesh.
86. "The flesh of animals which have been slaughtered to sell as meat for the people, however, is called 'flesh which exists already'. [It] has been slaughtered for their meat to be used for food by one person or by a group of people, apart from fellow Dhamma friends, or specially for the butcher himself ... If people cook such meat and offer it to a bhikkhu, [it] will not be an offence to accept and eat it." (VMIIp131–133)
87. Briefly mentioned in the actual Vinaya but given in detail in the Commentaries.
88. However, they cannot store fruit juice beyond that single day.
89. Eight varieties are mentioned in the Pàli: mango-juice, roseapple-juice, juice from two types of bananas, 'honey tree'-juice, persimmon or grape-juice, lotus-root juice, marian-plum or lychee-juice.
90. The traditional way of making these juices is that "the ripe fruit should be peeled or cut open and the flesh removed and bound up in a cloth and then squeezed hard so that the juice comes out, leaving the (remains of the) flesh in the cloth, after which sufficient water should be added, mixing in other things such as sugar or salt to taste. Other [than for the 'honey tree juice', water need not be added.] The fruit should be fresh and it is prohibited to cook it over a fire." (VMIIp137)
91. e.g. Plain chocolate (sugar + vegetable oil + cocoa) is allowable in some places but not milk chocolate. (Milk is food.)
92. In some communities tea, coffee, cocoa, etc. would be included here.
93. Five màsaka —a unit of money of the Buddha's time— is reckoned by the Commentaries to be equal to about 1/24 troy ounce of gold.
94. It is also the tenth of the Ten Precepts and so also concerns the novice (sàmaõera).
95. There can be a problem in communicating this to the donors without causing offence to them and without the bhikkhu falling into offence himself: "The question of whether or not it is best to express one's refusal outwardly lies beyond the scope of the Vinaya, and often depends on the situation. Ideally, one should inform the donor so that he or she will know enough not to present such gifts in the future, but there are also cases where the donor is still new to the idea of rules and will simply be offended if the bhikkhu objects to what he or she means as a well-intentioned gesture. This is thus a matter where a bhikkhu should use his discretion." (BMCp218)
96. "the Buddha permitted money to be entrusted by a donor to a steward, who may be a monastery attendant or a lay follower, for the personal benefit of an individual bhikkhu, thus: 
'There are, bhikkhus, people of faith and confidence (in the Sangha) who entrust money into the hands of monastery stewards saying, "With this, provide the bhikkhu so-and-so with what is allowable". I permit you, bhikkhus, to accept an allowable item obtained thereby. But this, bhikkhus, I do not say: that in any circumstances may gold, silver or money be accepted (by a bhikkhu, or) be looked about for (by him)'.
"When the donors ask the bhikkhu, 'Has the Venerable One a steward?' or, 'Is there an appropriate place where I may deposit this money', or some similar question, then the bhikkhu may point out a suitable steward, or he may indicate an appropriate place. Should the donor deposit the money with that steward, or in that place, then it is properly deposited.
"A bhikkhu may not command (tell) either the donor or the steward what to do with regard to the gift of gold or money. However, he may give them hints, or suggestions, or any information, as long as these fall short of ordering the donor or steward. Also, a bhikkhu may not accept the ownership of gold or money offered to him indirectly, for example should a donor say to him, "In such and such a place is a certain amount of money, I give it to you." then the bhikkhu is obliged to reject the gift by words or by a gesture of refusal or by mental resolve (e.g. determining, "I do not accept this") otherwise he incurs [an offence of Confession with Forfeiture]." (AB)
97. The list also mentions: women, articles of her dress, and representations of women; various kinds of weapons; instruments for trapping animals; all kinds of musical instruments. (See VMIIp73)
98. See BMC p528–9
99. Divination, casting spells, mediumship, giving protective charms, exorcism, fortune telling, astrology, ghost-lore, etc., are classed as 'low animal-like knowledge' (see page ) and do not come under this rule.
100. The eighth Confession rule is closely connected with this one of Defeat but there the claim is truly made. Even so, indulging in such disclosures to lay people requires confession especially when, as in the origin-story, a bhikkhu does so just to obtain more alms. Rule Summary: "To tell an unordained person of one's actual superior human attainments is [an offence of Confession.]" (Pàc. 8; BMCp288.) Also showing off supernormal attainments was criticised by the Lord Buddha.
101. According to the Commentary, an insane monk is one who "goes about in an unseemly way, with deranged perceptions, having cast away all sense of conscience and shame, not knowing whether he has transgressed major or minor training rules" (See BMPp49)
102. The Buddha did make a special allowance about footwear for 'outlying border regions'. In some western countries going bare-footed would not be socially acceptable and might even be against the law. The Great Standards should be used to decide what is suitable.
103. A type of serpent with magical powers.
104. cp. Sekhiya page .
105. It would seem that in order to treat other substances in the same way as alcohol, they should significantly distort or impair one's mindfulness. (As in the Fifth Precept.) Smoking cigarettes, drinking coffee or tea would therefore not normally be included in this rule. As lay people offer such items they can decide for themselves what things are appropriate to give to bhikkhus. Certain communities may decide such things are 'unhealthy' and 'addictive' and therefore not allow them. (If a lay person does not agree with any such item then they should simply not give them.) 
106. See Invitation or Pavàraõà, page .
107. "The term 'corrupter of families' is one way of speech used by a group of bhikkhus. It does not mean that a bhikkhu gets angry, takes revenge, injures or destroys another's wealth. The meaning is that a bhikkhu flatters by behaving as a layman, or by serving lay people, or by hoping for gains, giving a little to get much. Doing this a bhikkhu is called a corruptor of families because he makes lay people decline in faith which is the cause for the possession of skilfullness. Although a bhikkhu behaving in that way may please some laymen, yet they will not respect him as a bhikkhu, only treating him as an inferior friend. The term 'of bad behaviour', refers to behaviour beyond the bounds of a [recluse's] conduct, for instance, playfully associating with girls in a family, or playing games, naughtiness or joking, singing and dancing." (Pat. 1969 Ed.; p157)
108. Also see 'Strictness and Blaming Others', page .
109. See figure page .
110. In NE Thailand, the people will more often squat down to 'welcome with respect'.
111. The cetiya (or stupa, chedi, sometimes pagoda) is one of the most ancient objects for the focus of recollection of and devotion towards the Lord Buddha. Buddha-råpas (statues of the Buddha) came later through, probably, Bactrian Greek influence.
112. Sanskrit renditions of the Pàñimokkha Rule contain extra Sekhiya Training rules often concerned with ways of showing respect. For example, Rules 60 to 85 are all concerned with Buddha-Stupas:
Rule 63: "Not to wear leather shoes into a Buddha-Stupa is a rule I will observe; [ #77.] Not to carry a Buddha-image into a privy is a rule I will observe; [#84.] Not to sit with my feet stuck out in front of a Buddha-Stupa is a rule I will observe." (Shaikshas from the Pratimoksha Precepts)
113. Also one of the Sanskrit Sekhiya Rules (Målasarvàstivàdin Saikùa) disallows "sitting on a seat stretching out the feet in a public place." (Buddhist Monastic Discipline p99)
114. in terms of 'bhikkhu-age' rather than physical age.
115. For another translation, see Bodhnyanarama's Advice for Guests, page .
116. ©Thanissaro Bhikkhu, see the Bibliography.
117. and BuddhaNet in Australia. See Bibliography.
118. Pages 4 to 24 from: Bhàvanà Vandanà, Book of Devotion: Compiled by Ven. Dr H. Gunaratana Mahathera, © 1990 Bhàvanà Society, All rights reserved. This part reproduced here with the kind permission of Ven. Dr H. Gunaratana Mahathera.
119. See Appendix A above instead.
120. adapted from: Bhavana Vandana, Book of Devotion, pages vii–ix. 
121. These are included to show the actual working practices of a few monasteries and organisations I have personal contact with. Anything else appropriate can also be added here.
122. For Free Distribution only. © Bodhinyana Monastery, Lot 1, Kingsbury Drive, Serpentine, Western Australia 6205, Australia.
123. extract. © Bodhinyanarama Buddhist Monastery, 17 Rakau Grove, Stokes Valley, Wellington, New Zealand.
124. Extracts. © Wat Pah Nanachat, Ban Bung Wai, Ubon Ratchathani, Thailand 34310
125. from a western woman.
126. From the lay committee.
127. From some Australian women.
128.  See page .

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Index [**The page numbers are not accurate in this RTF version.**]

abortion	13
Adhikaraõasamatha	42, 46, 78
agriculture	14
Alcohol	39, 40, 48
Alms food	14, 22, 24, 25, 38, 42, 57, 78, 79
anagarika	6, 68, 78
Aniyata	17, 46, 78
Apartments	3, 19
Astrology	38
a¤jalã	43, 71, 72, 78
Barter	36
Bed	37, 38, 53-55, 59, 67, 78
Begging	20, 24, 37, 40
Bhikkhunã	2, 78
Bowing	3, 60, 69, 71, 74, 75, 78
Bowl	2, 20, 24, 25, 27, 50, 54, 56-58, 62, 67, 72, 74, 75, 78, 79
Buying	34, 35
Chanting	42, 59, 62, 74, 80, 81
Cheques	35, 36
chocolate	31, 72
Cigarettes	40
Cloth	2, 13, 15, 20, 22-24, 27, 28, 30, 39, 50-54, 56, 60, 66, 70, 72, 75, 76
Clothing	20, 22-24, 66, 70, 73, 76
Coffee	4, 31, 40, 67, 72
Counselling	16, 18
Credit cards	33, 35, 36, 68
dasasãla mata	2, 78
Defeat	8, 9, 13, 15, 17, 22, 32, 38, 48, 78, 79
Destroying plant life	13, 14
Devadatta	28, 29, 78
Devotion	ii, 3, 43, 59, 60, 62-64
dhutanga	2, 24, 25, 27, 36
Disputes	42, 46, 78
Disrobe	3-5, 8, 42
Divorce	16
dukkaña	14, 29, 78
Etiquette	37, 43, 46, 49, 56, 68, 69, 71, 79, 80
Family	9, 15, 18, 29, 30, 40, 41, 53
Flirting	16, 18
Food	2-4, 13, 14, 20, 22, 24-31, 38, 41, 42, 53, 56-58, 60, 65-67, 70-75, 78, 79
Forfeiture	22, 30, 33-36, 46, 48, 76, 77, 79
Fortune telling	38
Four necessities of life	20, 24
Fraud	32
Fruit	4, 14, 23, 26, 29, 30, 38, 61, 66, 67, 72
Fruit juice	4, 30, 67, 72
Furniture	37, 67
Going Forth	8, 78
Gold	15, 32-36, 39, 50, 54, 78
Good manners	25, 28, 46, 74
Great Standards	3, 4, 10, 11, 26, 30, 31, 37, 39, 40, 78
Hotel	19
Inheritance	4, 22
Invitation	1, 3, 5, 9, 19, 21, 25, 28, 29, 40, 53, 67-69, 76, 78, 79
Kañhina	24, 78
Kappiya	3, 4, 14, 29, 78
Killing	13, 14, 29, 48, 50, 56, 61
Law	iv, 7, 18, 39, 49, 78
Lodgings	36, 37, 72
Magic	39
Meat	24-26, 29, 33
Medical treatment	40
Medicines	4, 21, 22, 26, 30, 31, 54, 66-68, 72, 75
Meõóaka	3, 35, 79
Money	3, 4, 32-36, 45, 54, 65, 68, 78
Moon	9, 63, 79
Murder	13
Night	18, 20, 31, 63, 67
Nikàya	26, 32, 42, 79
Nis. Pàc.	ii, 22, 30, 33-36, 76, 77, 79
Nissaya	4, 7, 78, 79
Novice	6, 8, 18, 26, 28, 33, 45, 46, 55, 56, 63, 70, 79
Observance	1, 6, 9, 10, 26, 79
Offering	3, 4, 12, 14, 16, 20-22, 24-27, 29, 30, 35, 40, 45, 60, 65-67, 69, 71-75, 81
Ordination	ii, 2, 6-8, 42, 46, 55, 75, 77-81
Pàc.	ii, 13, 14, 17-19, 21, 22, 24-28, 30, 33-39, 41, 76, 77, 79
Pàr.	ii, 13, 15, 32, 38, 40, 79
Pàràjika	ii, 5, 7, 13, 15, 32, 46, 78, 79
Paritta	40, 63, 80
Pàtidesaniya	30, 79
Pavàraõà	21, 25, 40, 76, 78, 79
Piõóapàta	24, 79
Plants	14, 23
Possessions	12, 20-22
Public	3, 38, 39, 43, 53, 70, 79
Rains	7-9, 21, 24, 36, 52, 78, 79
Receiving cloth	15, 27, 72
Relationships	12, 15, 68, 69
Relatives	21, 27, 52, 62
Requisites	5, 13, 20, 21, 24, 25, 33-35, 46, 54, 65-67, 76, 77, 79
Right livelihood	12, 37, 49, 51
Robe	2, 3, 8, 20, 23, 24, 34, 36, 39, 50-53, 56, 57, 67, 76, 77
Room	17-19, 28, 59, 60, 62, 67, 68, 72-74
Saïgh.	ii, 16, 37, 41
Saïghàdisesa	ii, 15, 27, 36, 40, 46, 79
Sàmaõera	8, 33, 45, 79
Sekhiya	3, 8, 14, 23-25, 27, 29, 37-40, 43, 49, 79
Sexual Intercourse	15-17, 33, 50
Sexual Misconduct	15, 45, 50, 61
Sleeping	19, 37, 55, 57, 59, 72
Smuggling	32
Stealing	23, 32
Steward	4, 21, 33-35, 41, 54, 79
Storing Food	27, 65
Sugar	24, 30, 31, 54, 67, 72
Tea	4, 31, 40, 67, 72
Teaching	iv, 1, 6, 7, 13, 18, 20, 37, 47, 51, 60, 61, 65, 68, 70, 71, 79
Telephone	18
Ten Precepts	1, 2, 6, 8, 15, 26, 33, 39, 45, 78, 79
Thera	ii, 7, 79, 81
Thread	40, 52, 76
Tonic	31, 67
Travelling	18, 19, 51, 57, 68
Tudong	2, 24, 25, 36, 78, 79
Undetermined	17, 46, 78
Uposatha	1, 9, 26, 63, 79
Vandanà	43, 59-63, 79
Vassa	8, 51, 52, 79
Vegetarianism	29, 66
Wealth	15, 32, 40, 63
Weddings	16
Woman	2, 3, 15-19, 41, 50, 51, 54, 56, 63, 66, 68, 72, 75
Women	2, 3, 15-19, 27, 36, 39, 48, 51, 68, 70, 72-76
Wrong Livelihood	20, 40, 51 
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